Techniques for producing an image of radioactive emissions using a Compton camera and Compton lines

ABSTRACT

Techniques for imaging radioactive emission in a target volume include receiving data indicating a set of one or more known emission energies associated with a high energy particle source and determining a Compton line for each emission energy in the set. A Compton camera collects location and deposited energy from an interaction associated with a single source event from a target volume of a subject. For the single source event, an earliest deposited energy, E1, and first scattering angle, θ1, and a cone of possible locations for the source event are determined. A particular location for the high energy particle source within the target volume without including the single source event, if E1 is not within a predetermined interval of the Compton line for at least one of known emission energies. A solution is presented on a FILTER display device.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims benefit of Provisional Appln. 62/305,626, filed Mar. 9, 2016, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e).

This application is related to Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) Appln. PCT/US20016/039256 filed Jun. 24, 2016.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT INTEREST

This invention was made with government support under Grant Number CA187416 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

The use of proton therapy for treating cancer has greatly increased over the past decade, mostly because of the advantageous interaction properties of proton beams. A proton beam initially deposits a relatively low dose upon entering the patient, and the deposited dose rises to a sharp maximum, known as the Bragg peak, near the end of the beam's range in the patient and steep dose gradients at the distal edge of the Bragg peak. The sharp Bragg peak and the finite range of the beam provide the ability to deliver a highly conformal treatment, allowing for dose escalation to the tumor and/or a reduction of exposure to the surrounding healthy tissues. However, errors in patient setup or positioning, day-to-day variations in internal anatomy, anatomical motion, changes to tumor and normal tissue in response to treatment, and other biological factors all lead to uncertainties in the exact position of the distal dose gradient within the patient. Because of uncertainties in the position of the distal falloff, standard proton treatment techniques include the use of large treatment volume expansions to ensure target coverage and to avoid any possible undershoot or overshoot of the beam into nearby critical structures. These large safety margins limit the ability to exploit the steep dose gradients at the distal edge of the Bragg peak, thus reducing the full clinical potential of proton radiation therapy. Therefore, there has been a recognized need for a method of verifying the in vivo beam range, to allow for a reduction in necessary treatment margins and to improve the ability to fully exploit the advantages of proton radiation therapy.

One method for in vivo range verification consists in measuring secondary gamma radiation emitted from the treated tissue (Bennett et al 1978, Paans et al. 1993, Min et al. 2006). During proton therapy, proton-nucleus interactions produce secondary gamma rays through two distinct methods: (1) by creating positron-emitting isotopes (11C, 15O, etc.) that produce coincident, 511 keV annihilation gammas (positron annihilation; PA), and (2) by leaving behind an intact, excited nucleus that promptly decays by emitting a characteristic prompt (CP) gamma ray, also called prompt gamma (PG) emissions. Because the excited nuclear states are quantized, excited elemental nuclei emit a characteristic CP gamma spectrum.

Many researchers are currently studying the use of PA (Litzenberg et al 1992, Parodi et al 2000, Enghardt et al 2005, Knopf et al 2008) and CP (Min et al 2006, Polf et al 2009a, Testa et al 2009) gamma emission as a method for in vivo dose range verification. In particular, studies of CP emission during proton therapy have shown that it is strongly correlated to the dose deposited in the patient (Min et al 2006, Polf et al 2009a, Polf et al 2009b, Moteabbed et al 2011) and to the composition and density of the irradiated tissues (Polf et al 2009a, Polf et al 2009b). These studies have focused on techniques for measuring the initial energy spectrum and spatial distribution of CP gammas emitted from tissues. However, because of the relatively high energies (2 MeV-15 MeV) of CP emission from tissue, the efficiency of standard gamma detectors and imagers is very low, and standard collimation techniques are ineffective for CP measurements.

These problems with the standard detectors have led several researchers to study the use of Compton camera imaging (CCI) to measure CP emission during proton irradiation. Compton cameras (CCs) are multiple detector devices (typically with one or more stages) that measure the energy deposition and spatial position for each interaction of a gamma as it scatters in the different detectors of the camera. Because two-stage CCs have low efficiency for gammas with energy greater than about 1 MeV, Kurfess et al (2000) suggested the use of three-stage CCs that do not require the gammas to be completely absorbed. Recent work by Peterson et al (2010) and Robertson et al (2011) has shown that a three-stage CC could provide adequate detection efficiency to allow for measurement and imaging of secondary gammas (both CP and PA) from tissue during proton therapy.

A variety of approaches for reconstructing images from CC data have been studied. ML-EM (maximum-likelihood expectation-maximization) methods were introduced for CT imaging (Siddon 1985) and adapted for use with CC (Hebert et al 1990). A leading list-mode back-projection algorithm was introduced by Wilderman et al. and then improved by Mundy et al. (1998, 2010). Kim et al. compared two iterative forward-projection/back-projection algorithms and showed that these algorithms have better resolution than back-projection alone (2007). More recently, Nguyen et al. showed that the complete data ordered subsets expectation maximization (COSEM) algorithm produces qualitatively better image results when optimized using maximum a posteriori (MAP) than maximum-likelihood (ML). The stochastic origin ensembles (SOE) algorithm, based on the Metropolis-Hastings algorithm, was originally introduced by Sitek (2008) for use in emission tomography. Andreyev et al. (2011) adapted the SOE algorithm to CC imaging (CCI) and reconstructed list-mode data from simulated gamma sources embedded in phantoms. They compared their SOE results with the results obtained using the maximum-likelihood expectation-maximization (ML-EM) algorithm (Siddon 1985), designed for CT imaging, and found that SOE was much faster and produced images of similar resolution (Andreyev et al 2011).

SUMMARY

Applicant had determined that it was possible to measure prompt gamma (PG) interactions with a prototype Compton camera during delivery of proton pencil beams at clinical dose rates into a water phantom. Images of the PG emission could be reconstructed and shifts in the Bragg Peak range were detectable. Therefore PG imaging with a Compton camera for in vivo range verification during proton treatment delivery was determined to be feasible. However, improvements in the prototype Compton camera detection efficiency and SOE reconstruction algorithms were desired to make the techniques into a clinically viable PG imaging system. Thus, techniques are provided here for improving the production of an image of radioactive emissions using a Compton camera over approaches previously used. The improvements provide either faster convergence of the reconstruction algorithms, or more accurate results, or are applicable to other types of medical imaging or imaging of emission from other targets, including such emission from inanimate objects, than previously used with Compton cameras.

In a first set of embodiments, a method includes receiving data indicating a set of one or more known emission energies associated with a high energy particle source and determining a Compton line for each emission energy in the set. The method also includes collecting from each of a plurality of detectors in one or more stages of a Compton camera within a coincidence time interval, location and deposited energy from an interaction associated with a single source event from a target volume of a subject. The method further includes determining for the single source event an earliest deposited energy, E₁, and first scattering angle, θ₁, and a cone of possible locations for the source event based on the locations and deposited energies collected from the plurality of detectors in one or more stages of the Compton camera. The method still further includes determining whether E₁ is not within a predetermined interval of a value on the Compton line at the first scattering angle θ₁ for at least one of the set of one or more known emission energies. Even more, the method includes determining a particular location for the high energy particle source within the target volume without including the single source event, if E₁ is not within the predetermined interval for at least one of the set of one or more known emission energies. The method yet further includes presenting, on a display device, data indicating the particular location in the target volume.

In a second set of embodiments, a method includes receiving data indicating a set of one or more known positions in a target volume of a subject, wherein the known positions are associated with a high energy particle source. The method also includes collecting from each of a plurality of detectors in one or more stages of a Compton camera within a coincidence time interval, location and deposited energy from an interaction associated with a single source event from a target volume of a subject. Still further, the method includes determining for the single source event a cone of possible locations for the source event based on the locations and deposited energies collected from the plurality of detectors in one or more stages of the Compton camera. Even further, the method includes determining whether the cone of possible locations for the source event is not within a threshold distance of a closest one of the one or more known positions. The method yet further includes determining a particular location for the high energy particle source within the target volume without including the single source event, if the cone is not within the threshold distance. The method even still further includes presenting, on a display device, data indicating the particular location in the target volume. The threshold distance is determined by determining a quality of a solution for positions of the high energy particle source for each of a plurality of trial distances as the threshold distance; and selecting one of the plurality of trial distances for which the determined quality is the highest.

In each set of embodiments, in some embodiments the source event is a gamma ray emission and the cause of the source event is a proton beam interacting with an atom in the subject.

In each set of embodiments, in some embodiments the source event is a gamma ray emission and the cause of the source event is a positron-emitting radionuclide as used in positron emission tomography (PET) medical imaging. In some of these embodiments, collecting location and deposited energy from the interaction associated with the source event also includes selecting from each of only two detectors in one or more stages of the Compton camera within the coincidence time interval, location and deposited energy such that a sum of the deposited energies in the two detectors is about equal to an energy of a gamma ray emitted by annihilation of the positron produced by the positron-emitting radionuclide.

In each set of embodiments, in some embodiments the source event is a gamma ray emission and the cause of the source event is a gamma-emitting radioisotope as used in single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) medical imaging. In some of these embodiments, collecting location and deposited energy from the interaction associated with the source event also includes selecting from each of only two detectors in one or more stages of the Compton camera within the coincidence time interval, location and deposited energy such that a sum of the deposited energies in the two detectors is about equal to an energy of a gamma ray emitted by the gamma-emitting radioisotope.

In other sets of embodiments, a computer-readable medium or system is configured to perform one or more steps of one or more of the above methods.

Still other aspects, features, and advantages are readily apparent from the following detailed description, simply by illustrating a number of particular embodiments and implementations, including the best mode contemplated for carrying out the invention. Other embodiments are also capable of other and different features and advantages, and its several details can be modified in various obvious respects, all without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. Accordingly, the drawings and description are to be regarded as illustrative in nature, and not as restrictive.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Embodiments are illustrated by way of example, and not by way of limitation, in the figures of the accompanying drawings in which like reference numerals refer to similar elements and in which:

FIG. 1 is a block diagram that illustrates an example array of high energy particle detectors comprising one stage of a Compton camera, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 2 is a block diagram that illustrates an example Compton camera system suitable for imaging source events in a subject volume, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 3A is a block diagram that illustrates an example intersection of cone of possible source positions within a target volume, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 3B is a block diagram that illustrates an example iteration of stochastic origin ensemble (SOE) method for positioning events from spatially related sources, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 3C is a block diagram that illustrates an example set of voxels having a target resolution in a subject volume, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 3D is a block diagram that illustrates how selected positions of multiple source events populate a histogram of counts per voxel, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 4A through FIG. 4C are graphs that illustrates example maps of selected positions of multiple source events after various numbers of iterations of the SOE method, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 5A through FIG. 5D are images that illustrates example averaging of three statistically independent solutions for the SOE method, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 6A is a block diagram that illustrates an example closest location to a known source on a cone of possible event source positions, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 6B is a block diagram that illustrates computation of a distance of closest approach (DCA) between a cone and a known source location, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 6C is a graph that illustrates example detections from a proton beam that excites several different emitters, each with a different value of E₀, used according to some embodiments;

FIG. 7 is a flow chart that illustrates an example method for producing an image of source event locations, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 8 is a photograph that illustrates an example Polaris-J Compton camera, used in some embodiments;

FIG. 9 is an image that illustrates an example simulated image in which each emission event contributes a color to a corresponding pixel based on the initial emission energy, E₀, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 10A through FIG. 10D are photographs that illustrate an example streamlined two-stage Compton camera and use, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 11A is a graph that illustrates example Compton lines in measured E₁ values plotted against the calculated scattering angle (θ₁) from raw ⁶⁰Co point source data, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 11B is a graph that illustrates example Compton lines in measured E₁ values plotted against the calculated scattering angle (θ₁) from raw ⁶⁰Co point source data after DCA filtering, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 12A shows the E₁ vs θ₁ plot for the measured ⁶⁰Co data after CL filtering, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 12B shows E₁ vs θ₁ distribution for DCA+CL filtered ⁶⁰Co double scatter data after DCA E₀ correction, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 13A is a photograph and FIG. 13B is a block diagram that each depicts the four-stage CC of FIG. 8 placed relative to a point source in a water phantom, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 14 is a graph that illustrates an example point source energy spectra using traditional processing from a Compton camera compared to a reconstructed spectrum using DCA E₀ correction, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 15A through FIG. 15C are graphs that illustrate the inferred distribution of gamma sources in the XZ plane, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 15D and FIG. 15E are graphs that illustrate example 1D profiles of number of events in voxels along the X direction, and number of events in voxels along the Z direction, respectively, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 16A and FIG. 16B are graphs that illustrate example modulation transfer functions (MTF) for various filtering methods in the x and z directions, respectively, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 17A and FIG. 17B are images that illustrate example 2D maps of emissions from proton beam interactions with water for raw and filtered data, respectively, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 17C is an image that illustrates an example 2D map of emissions from proton beam interactions with water for filtered data, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 17D is a graph that illustrates example 1D along beam profiles of emissions from a proton beam interactions with water, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 17E is an image that illustrates an example 2D map of emissions from proton beam interactions with water for filtered data, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 17F is a graph that illustrates example 1D cross beam profiles of emissions from the proton beam interactions with water, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 18 is a block diagram that illustrates a computer system upon which an embodiment of the invention may be implemented; and

FIG. 19 illustrates a chip set upon which an embodiment of the invention may be implemented.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

A method and apparatus are described for production of an image of radioactive emissions using a Compton camera. In the following description, for the purposes of explanation, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. It will be apparent, however, to one skilled in the art that the present invention may be practiced without these specific details. In other instances, well-known structures and devices are shown in block diagram form in order to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the present invention.

Notwithstanding that the numerical ranges and parameters setting forth the broad scope are approximations, the numerical values set forth in specific non-limiting examples are reported as precisely as possible. Any numerical value, however, inherently contains certain errors necessarily resulting from the standard deviation found in their respective testing measurements at the time of this writing. Furthermore, unless otherwise clear from the context, a numerical value presented herein has an implied precision given by the least significant digit. Thus a value 1.1 implies a value from 1.05 to 1.15. The term “about” is used to indicate a broader range centered on the given value, and unless otherwise clear from the context implies a broader range around the least significant digit, such as “about 1.1” implies a range from 1.0 to 1.2. If the least significant digit is unclear, then the term “about” implies a factor of two, e.g., “about X” implies a value in the range from 0.5× to 2×, for example, about 100 implies a value in a range from 50 to 200. Moreover, all ranges disclosed herein are to be understood to encompass any and all sub-ranges subsumed therein. For example, a range of “less than 10” can include any and all sub-ranges between (and including) the minimum value of zero and the maximum value of 10, that is, any and all sub-ranges having a minimum value of equal to or greater than zero and a maximum value of equal to or less than 10, e.g., 1 to 4.

Some embodiments of the invention are described below in the context of detecting gamma rays (photons) emitted from inside a living subject (e.g., a human or animal) during various medical applications. However, the invention is not limited to this context. In other embodiments, other high energy particles, including alpha rays (helium nuclei), beta rays (electrons), beta plus rays (positrons), and X-rays (photons), are detected using Compton scattering in a suitable designed Compton camera due to other sources of such radiation in living and non-living subjects (such as machines, buildings and geological formations).

1. OVERVIEW

Compton interactions, also referred to as Compton scattering, occur when a photon or other high energy particle of wavelength 2 strikes an electron at rest in a material (including a living tissue). After the collision, a photon or other high energy particle is scattered at an angle θ with decreased energy and corresponding increased wavelength λ′. The increased wavelength is due to the particle's lower energy (and lower frequency, f) from the collision, according to the equations λ=c/f and E=h*f, where h is Planck's constant. The electron moves away with a speed s in a direction θ related to the change in wavelength Δλ Thus, at each Compton scattering interaction the high energy particle loses a part of its energy to a recoiling electron within the material or tissue. The scattering parameters satisfy the laws of conservation of energy and momentum. The Compton scattering relationship is given by Equation 1.

$\begin{matrix} {{\Delta \; \lambda} = {\frac{h}{m_{0}c}\left( {1 - {\cos \; \theta}} \right)}} & (1) \end{matrix}$

The interaction is detected in a stage of a Compton camera, as described below. Each stage provides a measurement of an amount of energy deposited in a detector and a location within the detector within a time window called a coincidence time interval. As used herein, the term interaction when used for one particle impinging on a different target particle includes either scattering of a particle of lower energy than the impinging particle or absorption of the impinging particle as energy is transferred to a component of a target particle. Typically each stage of a Compton camera has a one-dimensional (1D), or two dimensional (2D) or three dimensional (3D) array of detectors. Angles are determined by detecting successive scattering (e.g., a subsequent Compton scattering by the emitted lower energy particle) in a second, different detector of a Compton camera. As used herein, a high energy particle emission source event (simply called a source event or emission event hereinafter) refers to a single high energy particle emission within a subject that leads to a succession of two or more interactions, including at least one Compton scattering interaction, detected in corresponding detectors or stages of a Compton camera.

Various embodiments use the interactions in two or more detectors of a Compton camera to infer the position, or position and energy, of the source event in a target volume of a subject, such as gamma ray photon source events, x-ray photon source events, high energy electron or positron source events, among others. The energy of the initial high energy particle can be estimated by summing the energies deposited in all the detectors of the Compton camera, if enough detectors are included.

In the illustrated embodiments, for medical imaging of proton beams, PET, and SPECT, a Compton camera consists of one or more stages, with each stage including an array of high energy (1 to 100 million electron volts, MeV) photon detectors that respond to the energies (and corresponding frequencies or wavelengths) of high energy X-rays and gamma rays. In other embodiments, other detectors are used. The cameras are suitable for measuring Compton interactions, in which the energy deposited in a detector is related to the scattering angle between impinging and scattered photons or other high energy particles. If the emitted angle is detected based on a subsequent interaction in a second detector or stage, then the initial angle can be determined from the emitted angle and the energy deposited in the first stage, according to the equations given below. That angle defines a cone of possible positions for the source event. The probable location of the source event is on the cone and within the subject.

The energy deposited at each stage and the residual energy (with corresponding wavelength) after each scattering are governed by the following equations applicable to X-ray photons, high energy electrons (beta rays), positrons (beta plus rays), and helium nuclei (alpha rays), among others. The recorded detector interaction positions and energy depositions in the CC are used to calculate the initial energy of the particle (E₀) using the formula (Kroeger et al 2002) given by Equation 2A.

$\begin{matrix} {{E_{0} = {{\Delta \; E_{1}} + {\frac{1}{2}\left( {{\Delta \; E_{2}} + \sqrt{{\Delta \; E_{2}^{2}} + \frac{4\; \Delta \; E_{2}m_{e}c^{2}}{1 - {\cos \; \theta_{2}}}}} \right)}}},} & \left( {2A} \right) \end{matrix}$

where ΔE₁ and ΔE₂ are the energies deposited by the first and second scatterers, θ₂ is the second scattering angle between the first interaction in one detector and the next interaction in another detector or stage, m_(e) is the mass of the particle (e.g., an electron), and c is the speed of light. In some gamma ray embodiments, there is no third interaction and the scattered photon is photo-absorbed in the second detector or stage. In this case, the computation of E₀ is simpler, given by Equation 2B.

E ₀ =ΔE ₁ +ΔE ₂  (2B)

After E₀ has been calculated, the initial scattering angle θ₁ is calculated using the Compton scattering formula:

$\begin{matrix} {{\cos \; \theta_{1}} = {1 + {m_{e}{{c^{2}\left( {\frac{1}{E_{0}} - \frac{1}{E_{0} - {\Delta \; E_{1}}}} \right)}.}}}} & (3) \end{matrix}$

In various embodiments, the cameras are designed to resolve the angles of sources emitting high energy particles, where the sources are distributed over volumes of tens to hundreds of cubic millimeters within a target volume of hundreds of cubic centimeters inside a subject. As described in more detail in another section, the characteristics of such source events and/or their precise locations are of clinical significance in proton beam therapy, positron emission tomography (PET) medical imaging, and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) medial imaging, among others. To be useful clinically, the reconstruction algorithm must be both fast (taking a few hours or less) and precise, with resolution on the order of about 1 millimeter (mm, 1 mm=10⁻³ meters).

As noted in the background section, such radiographic imaging or therapy techniques cause the emission of prompt gamma rays resulting from the interactions of an incident beam (a proton beam for example) with a source tissue (during proton beam radiation therapy, for example). The emissions are prompt because they occur without appreciable delay. The interactions in multiple detectors in one or more stages of the Compton camera from a single source event necessarily occur within a short time window, on the order of several nanoseconds (ns, 1 ns=10⁻⁹ seconds) as the particles travel at or close to the speed of light (about 3×10⁸ meters per second) over the several centimeter (cm, 1 cm=10⁻² meters) distances between the stages. In practical terms, interactions in multiple detectors in one or more stages are assumed to be due to the same source event if the interactions all occur in a coincidence time interval short compared to the average time between source events. The detector interactions can occur in the stages in any order. For instance, stage 1 then 2 then 3, or stage 3 then 1 then 2, or stage 2 then 1 then 3, etc. All are valid interactions associated with a single emission event as long the correct sequence is determined. In example embodiments, for proton beams as the source of gamma rays detected in a Compton camera, the coincidence time interval is about 10 microseconds (μs, 1 μs=10⁻⁶ seconds).

Compton cameras are high energy particle emission event detectors distributed over one or more detection stages that each measure the energy deposition, the time, and the position of each interaction as successive rays due to a single source event scatter or absorb in each detector of the camera. In a Compton camera, images of source event locations are created by determining for each of multiple source events (in multiple separate coincidence time intervals) the energy deposited and the spatial coordinates of interactions within multiple detectors within the Compton camera. An example single stage is illustrated in FIG. 1 and an example three stage camera is illustrated in FIG. 2.

FIG. 1 is a block diagram that illustrates an example stage 100 of a Compton camera, comprising a 2D array 110 of high energy particle detectors 110 a, 110 b, 110 c and 110 d plus additional detectors indicated by ellipses. In some embodiments, each detector has an extended size in one or more directions yet can detect a location within a resolution size smaller than the volume of the detector. An array controller 120 receives input signals from the detectors 9*array 110, processes the signals and generates an output signal 130 indicating the detector (or associated location of the detector or within the detector), time of interaction, and amount of energy deposited (ΔE). If semiconductor crystals are used, then the detectors in each stage are usually composed of small crystals capable of resolving the target resolution (such as crystals of about 2 cm×2 cm×1 cm for proton beam applications) with all crystals in the array electronically connected so they act as a single large area detector. If a camera uses scintillating crystals, then each stage can have a single scintillator (such as about 10 cm×10 cm×5 cm for the proton beam applications) or could have an array of small scintillating rods (such as about 1 cm×1 cm×5 cm for proton beam applications) sandwiched together to form a large crystal. The more detectors, the more particles are detected, and thus the higher efficiency for the intended use, such as enough detectors to properly evaluate the proton beam Bragg Peak with 20% of the dose delivered for the proton beam therapy applications.

FIG. 2 is a block diagram that illustrates an example Compton camera system 200 suitable for imaging source events in a subject volume, according to an embodiment. Although a subject 290 is depicted for purposes of illustration, the subject is not part of the system 200. FIG. 2 depicts a three-stage interaction or triple scatter Compton camera 210, comprising stages 211, 212 and 213. The spatial coordinate system of the system 200 is given by the x and z axes in the horizontal plane of the diagram and the y axis in the vertical direction. In some embodiments, the origin of the spatial coordinates is related to the target volume, e.g., at the center or edge of the target volume. Although the stages 211, 212 and 213 are separated vertically in FIG. 2, there is no requirement that the orientation of the system be aligned with the local vertical or the gravitational field. Depending on the energies and interaction rates expected, one stage can be beside another—instead of displaced in the same direction as two previous stages, as depicted in FIG. 2. The output from the stages are input to a processing system, such as local or remote computer systems depicted in FIG. 18 or chip set depicted in FIG. 19. The processor is configured with software or hardware or both that function as a source imaging module 240 that performs one or more steps of an imaging method described in more detail below with reference to flow charts in FIG. 7.

The operation of the Compton camera is illustrated by a single source event that initiates a succession of rays that interact with different stages of the Compton camera 210. The position of the single source event occurs at position 295 in subject 290, due to any one of various causes, such as a proton beam interacting with material in subject 290 or radioactive decay from a naturally occurring or implanted radiation source, or some combination. In some embodiments, some information is known about the cause of the source event, such as the location of the implanted radioactive source, or the axis of the proton beam or the energy, or some combination; and, such information is used to simplify the design of the camera or simplify computations to produce the image. However, in some embodiments, the source events can be imaged even in the absence of such information.

The result is the emission of a first ray 251 of (often unknown) energy E₀ at a particular unknown initial angle (θ₁). If the first ray interacts with the first stage 211, then the deposited energy ΔE₁, time and location of the first interaction 231 is measured, with whatever measurement error is involved. The remaining energy, if any, is emitted as a second ray 252 of longer wavelength (lower energy). If the second ray 252 interacts with another stage, e.g., stage 212, then the deposited energy ΔE₂, time and location of the second interaction 232 is measured, with whatever measurement error is involved. The remaining energy, if any, is emitted as a third ray 253 with even longer wavelength (even lower energy). If the third ray 253 interacts with another stage, e.g., stage 213, then the deposited energy ΔE₃, time and location of the third interaction 233 is measured, with whatever measurement error is involved. Based on the angle between 1^(st) interaction 231 and second interaction 232, which defines a cone axis (V₁) 261, and the energy ΔE₁ deposited by the first interaction 231, the angle θ₁, and thus the cone 260 of potential source locations for the first ray 251, is determined. Based on the measurement errors, there is some uncertainty in the angle and position of the cone 260, but that uncertainty is ignored here for the purposes of illustration.

If most of the energy E₀ of the first ray 252 is absorbed in the three interactions 231, 232, 233, then an estimate of the value of E₀ is obtained by summing the energy deposited in the three interactions, that is E₀≈ΔE₁+ΔE₂+ΔE₃. If not, or if the total energy is not known or reasonably estimated, then the value of E₀ can be inferred using Equation 2A, above.

From the kinematics of the Compton scattering process, the energy deposition and position data for each scatter of the high energy particle is used to determine the incident energy and the angle of incidence. But, as mentioned above, the scattering information does not determine the precise origin of the high energy emission, but instead the origin can be at any point on the surface of a cone, referred to as a cone of origin. The axis 261 of the cone (V₁) is the line connecting the first two scattering interactions 231 and 323, the cones apex is the first scattering location 231 and the cone opening is the angle 2θ₁ where θ₁ is the scattering angle and the angle between the cone axis and the cone surface. The scattering angle θ₁ or angle 2 θ₁ of the opening of the cone is determined from Equation 3, above, based on E₀ and ΔE₁.

Although processes, equipment, and data structures are depicted in FIG. 1 and FIG. 2 as integral blocks in a particular arrangement for purposes of illustration, in other embodiments one or more processes or data structures, or portions thereof, are arranged in a different manner, on the same or different hosts, in one or more databases, or are omitted, or one or more different processes or data structures are included on the same or different hosts. For example, in some embodiments, a Compton camera includes only one stage; and, in some other embodiments, a Compton camera includes only two stages, or four or more stages.

Of all the locations on the cone surface, only those locations within a particular target volume 291 inside the subject 290 are considered as viable possible positions for the source event. The target volume may be the entire volume of the subject in some embodiments. In some embodiments, the target volume is confined to a region where source events are expected, for example, within a predetermined distance of a cause, such as a proton beam or an implanted radioactive source. FIG. 3A is a block diagram that illustrates an example intersection of the surface of cone 260 of possible source positions within a target volume 291, according to an embodiment. The actual but unknown position 310 of the source event is depicted. The next problems are to infer the location of position 310, and then map all the event sources to create a 3D or 2D image of events in the target volume. In a previous approach called back propagation, multiple events are assumed to originate from the same location so that three cones from three different events are plotted on the same plane in the target volume and any point or region common to all three is taken as a source location. This approach gave unsatisfactory results that agreed poorly with known event source locations.

A more sophisticated approach in the prior art is called stochastic origins ensemble (SOE) iterative algorithm. This approach iterates to a more probable solution for the location of the source event by considering the locations of all the cones from a large number N of events. The set of N events and associated cones constitutes the ensemble. At the first iteration, a point on each cone is chosen at random. For example, initial random location 320 is selected on cone 260 in the target volume 291 in subject 290. The initial points on all N cones for all N events are used to generate a spatial histogram which is used as the basis for a probability density distribution. In the next iteration, an event cone is selected N times from the entire ensemble; and, for each event, a new random point is selected on the surface of cone 260 in the target volume 291. The probability of the previous location and the probability of the new location for each event cone are both determined based on the probability density distribution of the current iteration. If the new location has a higher probability, then it is used as the better location for the current event and replaces the old location for the current event and the probability distribution is updated to that which reflects the new event position on its cone. Otherwise the old location is kept; and, the new location is rejected. The process is repeated for a large number L of iterations or until convergence is reached, e.g., the probability density distribution does not change significantly between iterations. Any condition for convergence of the solution can be used in various embodiments, e.g., change in spread of the probability distribution, reaching L iterations, among others. When that condition is satisfied, the process stops.

FIG. 3B is a block diagram that illustrates an example iteration of stochastic origin ensemble (SOE) method for positioning events from spatially related sources, according to an embodiment. Cone 260, target volume 291, actual unknown location 310, and initial random location 320 are as described above for FIG. 3A. The random locations 330 on other cones inside the target volume from other source events are depicted as open circles and are used to generate a spatial probability density distribution using voxels and a histogram, as described below. Then a second random location 322 is selected on the cone. Based on the probability density distribution, the second random location 322 might be more probable than the initial random location 320 and, if so, is taken as the better location on cone 260. The new location 322 is then used in a new probability density distribution during the next iteration.

FIG. 3C is a block diagram that illustrates an example set of voxels having a target resolution in a subject volume, according to an embodiment. The target volume is divided into these volume elements (voxels) in order to produce a spatial histogram H of counts in each voxel that reflect the density distribution of events at each iteration. FIG. 3D is a block diagram that illustrates how selected positions of multiple source events populate a 3D spatial histogram

of counts per voxel, according to an embodiment. The location labeled ri indicates the location of the ith event in the current iteration. In some embodiments, its relative probability is based on the number of other events in the same voxel. Mathematically this is expressed as follows. For each cone i, choose a new random point βi on the surface of the cone and in the target volume. Compare the probability density ρ of ri, ρ(ri), based on the histogram

at this iteration to the probability density of βi, ρ(βi) based on the same histogram. For example, in the previous embodiment of the SOE, if the condition expressed by Equation 4A is satisfied,

$\begin{matrix} {\frac{\rho \left( {\beta \; i} \right)}{\rho ({ri})} > {U\left( {0,1} \right)}} & \left( {4\; A} \right) \end{matrix}$

where, U(0,1) indicates a random variable selected from a uniform probability distribution over the interval 0 to 1, then set ri=βi and ρ(ri)=ρ(βi). The test is relative to U(0,1) and not relative to 1 because sometimes the point is moved even if the probability goes down. This is allowed in order to avoid formation of local high density regions (hot spots) which can cause artifacts in the image. Otherwise leave ri and ρ(ri) unchanged. When βi is selected, the counts in the affected voxels of the histogram

are updated.

In a new embodiment presented here, to improve convergence, the contribution of the old location to the current voxel (1/N) is removed from the probability of the old location. In this embodiment, if the condition expressed by Equation 4B is satisfied,

$\begin{matrix} {\frac{\rho \left( {\beta \; i} \right)}{{\rho ({ri})} - \frac{1}{N}} > {U\left( {0,1} \right)}} & \left( {4\; B} \right) \end{matrix}$

then set ri=βi and ρ(ri)=ρ(βi). When βi is selected, the counts in the affected voxels of the histogram

are updated. Otherwise leave ri and ρ(ri) unchanged. Thus, this embodiment includes updating for each source event during each iteration the selected location on the corresponding cone based at least in part on values of the counts in the histogram excluding the current source event.

The parameters of the algorithm are the number N of events and corresponding cones, the number M of iterations, and the size v of the voxels for the probability density distribution. The result is a 3D image of the locations of the different source events over an integration time long enough to detect N events, displayed as a projection in either one or two dimensions or in full three dimensions. In some embodiments, the initial energy E₀ of the source event is also determined and displayed on the image. For example, the dots representing each event are colored, or given greyscale shading, based on the initial energy E₀. In some embodiments, the image is computed and displayed again in a different overlapping or non-overlapping integration time interval.

FIG. 4A through FIG. 4C are graphs that illustrates example maps (3D images presented in perspective) of selected positions of multiple source events after various numbers of iterations of the SOE method, according to an embodiment. This example was developed for a simulation of data received from a proton beam penetrating a volume of water. FIG. 4A depicts the distribution of initial locations for the source events, FIG. 4B depicts the distribution of locations of source events after 500 iterations, and FIG. 4C depicts the distribution of locations of source events after 80,000 iterations. As can be seen after 80,000 iterations the cloud of points suggests a proton beam interacting with the water molecules to generate gamma ray emission events distributed along the proton beam.

To improve convergence in fewer iterations, in some embodiments, the previous SOE algorithm is changed in one or more ways. The exclusion of the current location from the histogram, represented by Equation 4B discussed above, is one such improvement used in some embodiments. Another improvement is presented here.

In the previous approach, on each iteration, N cones are selected at random with replacement so that the same cone can be selected multiple times and some cones are not selected in some iterations. In one improvement embodiment, the cones are selected in random order but without replacement, so that each cone contributes once and only once to each iteration.

In a third improvement embodiment, the SOE algorithm is applied independently M different times to get M different locations for each cone, and the results from all M solutions are combined, e.g., by averaging the M locations for each cone obtained in the M different solutions. This is appropriate because each solution starts with a different set of randomly selected initial locations and each iteration selects the cones in random order. Thus the solutions are statistically independent. Averaging over statistically independent estimates reduces the error from that associated with each solution separately. In other embodiments, other combinations are performed, such as taking the average value inside a voxel or taking the root mean square of each coordinate. FIG. 5A through FIG. 5D are images that illustrate example averaging of three statistically independent solutions for the SOE method, according to an embodiment. The 3D locations for each cone are projected to a particular plane for display in a 2D image. FIG. 5A through FIG. 5C show the three independent solutions for the source events, while FIG. 5D show the average position of each cone for all cones, providing a tighter brighter distribution of event locations.

In some embodiments, other information is used to reduce the number of interactions needed (and thus reduce the number of stages needed) or to improve the selection of source event locations on the cones. For example, if the location, S, of the center axis of a proton beam is known, or a centroid of an implanted radiation source is known, then the location selected on the cone can be the closest point on the cone in the target volume to the known axis of the proton beam or centroid of the implanted radiation source. FIG. 6A is a block diagram that illustrates an example closest location to a known source on a cone of possible event source positions, according to an embodiment. Cone 260, target volume 291, and initial random location 320 are as described above for FIG. 3A. The location of a center of the source events, such as the central axis of a proton beam or a centroid of a targeted organ from a concurrent or co-registered CT scan, is known. This is represented in FIG. 6A by the known proton beam or other source locations 630 in the target volume. In this example, the known locations 630 do not intersect the cone 260, but can still be used to find the location of a point 620 on the cone closest to the known locations 630. Thus, in this embodiment, the method includes receiving data indicating a set of one or more known positions in a target volume of a subject associated with a cause of a high energy particle source event. In such an embodiment, an initial location 620 on the cone is selected that is closest to the known source location in the target volume.

The distance of closest approach (DCA) is defined as the shortest perpendicular distance from the cone-of-origin surface to the location of the known location of the emission source. The computation of this distance is illustrated in FIG. 6B. FIG. 6B is a block diagram that illustrates the computation of a distance of closest approach (DCA) between a cone and a known source location, according to an embodiment. The stages 211 and 212, the 2^(nd) ray 252, the cone axis 261 and cone 260 are as described above for FIG. 2. The known source location 630 is as depicted in FIG. 6A and represented by the symbol S(x,y,z). The first interaction position and second interaction positions are indicated by P₁ and P₂, respectively. The angle θ₁ is designated simply as angle θ; and, its complementary angle is represented as 0. To determine the DCA for a given cone-of-origin 260, first the perpendicular distance (D) between the source position (S) and the cone axis 261 is determined using the magnitude of the perpendicular vector from S to the cone axis 261, where perpendicular is defined relative to the cone axis 261. The distance from the apex to the closest point on the axis is designated V_(1C). The radius of the cone (r_(C)) at the point that the perpendicular vector from S intersects the cone axis is then determined using Equation 5a

r _(C) =V _(1C) tan θ₁  (5a)

by virtue of the right triangle created by the intersection point, the apex at P1, and the source position S. The distance

between the point S and the cone is given by Equation 5b.

=D−r _(C).  (5b)

Another right triangle is created by the point S, the side of distance

and the DCA that is perpendicular to the surface of the cone. The angle between the side of length

and the cone is equal to the complementary angle ϕ, so the angle between the side of length

and the side of length DCA is θ. Thus, DCA is calculated using Equation 6a.

DCA=

cos θ₁  (6a)

This value of DCA is calculated for each measured radiation particle. If the line of the proton beam pierces the cone and thus intersects the cone in one or two places, the DCA is equal to zero in the one or two places and either may be selected. In some embodiments, the intersection point closest to the predicted endpoint of the beam range is considered the more probable and so that one is selected. When the distance of closest approach (DCA) is from the cone to a line source, such as resulting from a proton pencil beam, DCA is calculated using Equation 6b.

DCA=x _(DCA) sin(δ)  (6b)

Where x_(DCA) is the distance from the X axis of the line source (e.g., the central axis of the pencil beam) to the cone surface and δ is the angle between the cone surface and the XZ plane.

In some embodiments, the DCA is used as a filter to exclude from analysis cones that are not likely due to emission form the source of interest. This DCA filter includes testing to see that the shortest distance between the cone surface and the source location is less than some preset value (e.g. closest point on cone is <1 cm away from source location). If this is true, then the event and its cone are kept to use in the reconstruction. If this condition is false, then the event and its cone are discarded and NOT used in the reconstruction. In some embodiments, the locations that pass this step are kept as the final solution. In some embodiments, if the DCA is less than a given value (1 cm, for instance) the cone is kept for use with the iterative reconstruction. In some of these embodiments that intersect the cone, one intersection is selected as the initial position, either at random or the one closest to a pencil beam end range. So for an intercept, with DCA=0, the cone would pass the DCA filter and would be used in the iterative reconstruction, with or without one of the intersection points as an initial position.

In some embodiments the threshold for use in the DCA filter is determined empirically as follows. A set of trial DCA thresholds for the DCA filter are determined, e.g., a set of 100 trial DCA thresholds from 1 mm to 10 centimeters in increments of 1 mm. For each trial threshold, a solution is determined for training set data representing 20% of a standard dose, and quality of the solution is measured. Any quality measure may be used. It is advantageous if the quality measure indicates at least one of: the average number of observations per voxel away from the peak voxel (the voxel with the most events); and, the number of events in the peak voxel. The threshold that gives the best quality measure is the threshold used for the DCA filter during clinical use. For example, in some embodiments, the quality measure is a ratio of events in the peak voxel divided by the average number of events in a voxel away from the peak, e.g., voxels more than a full width at half maximum of the peak value.

Another way to determine the threshold value, in some embodiments, is to perform the following steps automatically. 1) Take a measured DCA and determine a point where a line perpendicular to the cone through the DCA point intercepts the beam central axis. 2) Determine a distance from the entrance of the proton beam into the subject to that point (e.g., how deep the beam is in patient for clinical case). 3) Determine the mean energy of the proton beam at that depth analytically, and determine the probability of a PG emission of that energy at that depth using measured or known production cross section data. (See, for example, Verburg et al., 2012) 3) Divide measured DCA value by production cross section to get adjusted DCA, hereinafter designated xDCA. 4) Calculate a distance to cone for each point along path of beam in patient, and calculate xDCA for each point. Take as a point of emission the point along the beam path with the smallest xDCA. Take as the threshold value for the DCA filter that smallest xDCA.

In some embodiments, the SOE method is also used to refine the initial location 620 based on the closest approach. In such embodiments, all cones with distances to the source less than the preset value are taken for use in the SOE reconstruction or a maximum likelihood reconstruction or other stochastic reconstruction. These stochastic reconstruction acts as a filter to remove “flawed” cones from the reconstruction and the result is more realistic images with less noise. These filtered out cones are considered flawed because in general they poorly correspond to the theoretical predictions of Compton scattering predicted by Equation 8. The convergence is expected to occur faster and consequently the number L of iterations can be set smaller than in the other stochastic methods. In some embodiments, the SOE is used but with the proximity of the selected point to the known position serving as a basis for the probability density distribution. For example, given two points ri and βi on cone i during the current iteration, the one closer to the known position of the cause of the source event is taken to be more probable so it is kept while the other is discarded.

In some medical imaging embodiments, including PET and SPECT imaging, the source energy E₀ is estimated with only two interactions. Since such medical imaging uses low energy gammas (<1 MeV), in principle, only 2 interactions in one or two stages are enough to deposit the entire emitted energy. Thus one could image effectively using double scatter events. In some embodiments, the initial energy (E₀) of the ray used for medical imaging (e.g. 511 keV annihilation energy for PET) is already known, one just looks for and uses in the image production double scatter events where ΔE₁+ΔE₂=E₀ for the particular initial energy being used. This process ensures that the simultaneous events used are suitable and avoids the introduction of noise from spurious interactions not associated with real source events of interest in the target volume.

In some embodiments using the closest approach to a known cause of the source events, the initial energy of a gamma ray can be determined for a two interaction event without needing all of the energy to be absorbed. This can be accomplished by the following method, called the initial energy (E₀) correction based on distance of closest approach (and abbreviated DCA E₀ correction). In a first step, a guess of the initial energy E₀₁ is made. The assumed value is used to create a cone for the gamma and the shortest distance between the cone surface and the known source position is calculated. In a second step, a new guess at the initial energy E₀₂ is made and a new cone is created. The shortest distance between the new cone and the source position is calculated. In a third step, whichever of the two guesses at the initial energy gives the smallest distance between cone and source position is chosen as the initial energy E₀ of the gamma. The shortest distance between the test cone-of-origin for any guess E_(0i), where i∈{1, . . . , the number of guesses}, and the source is calculated according to

$\begin{matrix} {{{DCA}\left( E_{i} \right)} = {{\; \cos \; \theta_{1}} = {\left\lbrack {1 + {m_{e}{c^{2}\left( {\frac{1}{E_{0\; i}} - \frac{1}{E_{0\; i} - E_{1}}} \right)}}} \right\rbrack}}} & (7) \end{matrix}$

where

is the distance from source position to the cone surface as described above and computed using Equations 5a and 5b.

If the particle originates from a known radio-isotope, then the known particle emission energies (e.g., Ea, Eb, Ec) of the isotope are used for the initial guesses E₀i of the particle energy, such as 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV gammas from ⁶⁰Co, or prompt γ emission during proton beam radiotherapy. The known particle emission (e.g., Eb) that gives the shortest distance between cone and source position is chosen as the initial energy for that event. If the energy of the gamma emission is completely unknown, then a series of initial energy guesses (e.g., E₀₁, E₀₂=E₀₁+δE, E₀₃=E₀₁+2δE, . . . ) can be made, with each subsequent guess increasing (or decreasing for negative δ) the guessed energy value by a fixed amount, δE. A cone is created for each initial energy guess and the shortest distance between cone and source position is determined. Effectively, this method scans over a set range of energy values. The energy value in the scanned range that gives the smallest distance between cone and source position is chosen as the initial energy E₀ for this event.

These approaches using a Compton camera and imaging techniques offers several advantages over typical PET imaging. The Compton camera apparatus is smaller; a large PET imager that takes up a whole room is not needed. Compton camera apparatus can be battery powered, making the apparatus portable. The Compton camera apparatus is cheaper than a PET or SPECT imager by about a factor of 10 (or more). The Compton camera apparatus can be used to measure and image a large range of gamma energies from 100 keV up to 10 MeV. As shown by this example, a Compton camera apparatus can be configured and used for a wide range of nuclear imaging and functional imaging applications.

In various embodiments, some additional data conditioning is done by considering the Compton lines in the processing to further improve convergence or accuracy in imaging sources of radiation within a living or inanimate subject. Equation 3 can be rearranged to give the well known Compton relation for E₁ as a function of θ₁,

$\begin{matrix} {{\Delta \; E_{1}} = {E_{0}\frac{\alpha \left( {1 - {\cos \; \theta_{1}}} \right)}{1 + {\alpha \left( {1 - {\cos \; \theta_{1}}} \right)}}}} & (8) \end{matrix}$

where α is a constant that depends on the mass of the particle and the speed of light. If E₀ is known, then the theoretical value of ΔE₁ can be determined for a given scattering angle (θ₁). This is evident as a deposited energy curve that increases from zero to a maximum at angles from zero to 180 degrees in a graph of ΔE₁ as a function of θ₁ for multiple emissions from a particular emitter type which has a fixed value of E₀. The maximum energy deposited is related to the fixed value E₀. These preferred values of deposited energy as a function of scattering angle form a trace called a Compton line (CL). Thus, if the emitter type is known, with a known value of E₀, and the measured first scattering angle θ₁ is determined, then the observations close to the theoretical Compton line are more reliable than random observations from other sources or noise.

FIG. 6C is a graph that illustrates example detections from a proton beam that excites several different emitters, each with a different value of E₀, used according to some embodiments. The horizontal axis 662 indicates measured scattering angle (θ₁) in degrees (determined from the position of corresponding energy deposits in one or more detectors in one or more stages and energy deposited earliest). The vertical axis 664 indicates energy deposited earliest, ΔE₁. As can be seen, observations cluster along several distinct Compton lines 666 a through 666 g (collectively referenced hereinafter as Compton lines 666), especially evident and distinct at angles above about 30 degrees. Each different Compton line is associated with a different initial emission energy E₀. For known emitters, the values of E₀ are known, and the associated Compton lines are also known. The Compton lines can be determined using known theoretical curves, e.g., Equation 8, or past observations.

In some embodiments in which the emitter(s) in the target volume are known or can be limited, the knowledge of Compton lines can be used to remove observations that are not associated with a Compton line of the known emitters in the target volume. In certain embodiments, a Compton Line filtering step occurs in addition to (e.g., after) the determination of E₀ during DCA. That is, observations more than a threshold distance from the Compton line for the chosen E₀ are removed from further consideration in the algorithm (e.g., back-projection algorithm, iterative forward-projection/back-projection algorithm, the complete data ordered subsets expectation maximization (COSEM) algorithm, or the stochastic origin ensembles (SOE) algorithm). Compton Line filtering further refines the final image by keeping only the interactions whose deposited energy in the first interaction matches the theoretical energy described by the Compton lines.

CL filtering can be carried out, in some embodiments in conjunction with DCA E₀ correction, by following the steps described here. First, theoretical ΔE₁ vs θ₁ values are plotted for known emission lines with known E₀ values (known as Compton lines), or for E₀ values of a gamma emissions determined using the DCA energy determination method. Next, determine which measured Compton line or lines on which a particular event could lie are by determining whether measured ΔE₁ is less than the energy deposited at a given angle for a given Compton Line. That is, measured ΔE₁ cannot be greater than the E₀ associated with a Compton line. Cone-of-origins are then created for all possible Compton Lines of known E₀ for the particle using the scatter angle value along the Compton line that corresponds to the measured ΔE₁. These different possible E₀ correspond to the values for Ea, Eb, Ec described above in the DCA E₀ correction approach described above. Next the distance to the point of origin or particle beam central axis is calculated for each possible E₀, as illustrated in FIG. 6A. The E₀ with the smallest distance is chosen and used in conjunction with its cone to reconstruct the image. Following the determination of E₀ and DCA-filtering, otherwise flawed scattering events can be further removed from the data using a Compton Line (CL) filter, as described above.

2. METHOD

FIG. 7 is a flow chart that illustrates an example method for producing an image of source event locations, according to an embodiment. Although steps are depicted in FIG. 7 as integral steps in a particular order for purposes of illustration, in other embodiments, one or more steps, or portions thereof, are performed in a different order, or overlapping in time, in series or in parallel, or are omitted, or one or more additional steps are added, or the method is changed in some combination of ways. This embodiment uses DCA filtering and Compton line filtering in conjunction with EOS processing. In other embodiments, other algorithms are used with DCA and Compton line filtering.

In step 701, the target spatial resolution v is determined for locating events in a target volume within a subject that is susceptible to internal radioactive emissions. The subject can be any human or animal or other living or dead organism, or any man-made or natural inanimate object, such as a machine, a building or a geological formation. The radioactive emission may be natural or artificially implanted, such as radioactive ore in a geological formation, spillage from a machine that uses or is powered by nuclear material, radioactive tracers used to detect movement of contaminants or fluids through the environment, or radioactive sources introduced into a subject for diagnosis or treatment. The target volume is the portion of the subject within which the radioactive emission are of interest, such as the volume in the vicinity of a proton beam used in therapy. The target resolution depends on the use for the information. For example, in detecting the Bragg peak absorption of the proton beam within a target tissue, a resolution of a few millimeters may be desirable; while, for detecting ore in a geological formation, a resolution of a hundred meters may be advantageous. The target resolution is used to determine the size of voxels in the target volume for accumulating counts of emission events to use as a probability density distribution in some statistical methods, such as the stochastic origins ensemble (SOE) method described above. In such embodiments, step 701 includes breaking the target volume up into volume elements (voxels) of size on the order of the target resolution v. In some embodiments that do not use the SOE method, step 701 is omitted.

In step 703, the characteristics of a Compton camera suitable for the target volume and spatial resolution v are determined and a suitable Compton camera is procured. In some embodiments, step 703 includes designing the Compton camera (including some or all of the number and spatial arrangement of stages and the number and type of detectors in each stage) for a particular purpose and building the stages or camera or causing the stages or camera to be built. For example, in a pilot study of the feasibility of using Compton cameras to detect absorption of a proton beam, a commercially available Compton camera was used that was suitable for a feasibility study but not optimal for that particular purpose. A Camera designed for proton beam absorption in human tissue, would have distinctive characteristics not available in other cameras or suggested by other uses. For example, for millimeter resolution in a human body of 1 meter size, the Compton camera stages, necessarily placed a meter from the source, would advantageously have detectors capable of measurements with millimeter to centimeter resolution and ranges of photon energy (wavelength or frequency) interaction suitable for the prompt gamma emissions that result from the absorption of the proton beam in the subject's tissues. In some embodiments, step 703 includes steps to select or build a suitable Compton camera for an intended purpose.

For example, in some embodiments a Polaris-J Compton camera was used that was originally designed for low energy (<2 MeV) gamma imaging. FIG. 8 is a photograph that illustrates an example Polaris-J Compton camera. There are four stages 801, 802, 803 and 804. Each stage contains a 2×2 array of pixelated Cadnium Zinc Telluride (CZT) crystals (2 cm×2 cm×1.5 cm each) for a total CZT area of 4 cm×4 cm. For this prototype, CZT was chosen for its high interaction cross section for gamma rays in a range of interest (up to 117 MeV). All detector crystals are pixelated 11×11 in x- and y-directions on the anode with a planar cathode. Using pulse height and shape analysis of the anode signals, a resolution of 1.5 mm is achievable in the x- and y-directions, and <1 mm in the z-direction (depth). The individual stages are linked electronically through a synchronization coincidence timing (SCT) module 810, allowing the user to determine the number of stages that must have recorded a gamma interaction within a fixed 1.5 μs coincidence time interval in order to trigger a full readout and reset of all stages of the Polaris-J CC, the reader is referred to McCleskey et al. (2015) and for a description of the readout electronics the reader is referred to Zhang and He (2006).

For proton beam imaging and PET imaging it is advantageous to have a large enough detector array (surface area) to allow a 3D image to be acquired with Compton imaging technique. This provides sufficient parallax with the camera to get a 3D image of the full proton beam. Also the detector is advantageously able to detect gammas in a short window of time when the proton beam is on or before the PET tracer decays or is washed out from the body. Because of the detector area and sampling rate of the Polaris-J, it was determined that the detection efficiency of the Polaris-J was too low to be clinically useful. Therefore it was determined to make two changes to the next generation prototype camera to improve the detection efficiency. First, the size of the CZT detector array was increased to 4 cm×16 cm (e.g., a 2 by 8 array of crystal, each crystal being a 2 cm by 2 cm by 1.5 cm CZT crystal). Second, the readout circuits were switched to a faster model to improve the achievable count rate to about 50,000 counts/sec. A further variation of a newly designed camera is described in more detail below in section 3.1 with reference to FIG. 10A through FIG. 10D.

In step 711, data are collected that indicate measurements by the Compton camera of emissions from the subject. The collected data includes time of interaction, location within the stage (e.g., location in detector and detector identifier or position) and energy deposited. In some embodiments, the data collected includes the coordinates of the interaction in the system coordinates, for example with an origin in or close to the target volume in the subject.

In step 713, interactions associated with one source event are determined. In some embodiments, step 713 includes determining coincident interactions in multiple detectors in one or more stages that are likely due to the same source event in the subject. For example, an interaction detected in stage one starts a coincident time interval during which subsequent interactions detected in one or more other detectors or stages are considered candidate second and subsequent interactions downstream of the initial interaction. In some embodiments, the candidate interactions are screened to eliminate those unlikely due to the same source event. For example, candidates are eliminated if they produce a cone that does not intersect the target volume. In some embodiments with smaller energy emissions or emission of a known energy, only a one or two stage Compton camera is used and candidates are eliminated if the sum of the two deposited energies does not closely equal the known energy of the ray emitted by the known source type. In some embodiments in which the locations of the cause of the source events is known, but the energy is not, the initial energy can be determined using the one energy, among a range of scanned energies, which produces a cone for which the closest approach to the known position is best, as described above. As a result of step 713, a large number (N) of events are identified in the collected data. Each event involves two or more interactions (each interaction characterized by time, location, deposited energy) in corresponding detectors in one or more stages of the Compton camera within a coincident time interval. Thus, step 713 includes collecting from each of a plurality of detectors in one or more stages of a Compton camera within a coincidence time interval, location and deposited energy from an interaction associated with a single source event in the target volume of the subject.

In step 715, a surface of a cone of possible source locations, e.g., the cone of possible origins, is determined for each of the N events. In some embodiments, the total energy of the source event, E₀, is also estimated for each of the N events, based on the energy deposited in all the interactions associated with the event in various detectors of the Compton camera, or ΔE₁, ΔE₂ and Equation 2A, or DCA E₀ correction. Thus, step 713 includes determining, for the source event, an initial energy E₀ and cone of possible locations for the source event based on the locations and deposited energies collected from the plurality of detectors in one or more stages of the Compton camera.

In step 771, one or more events and associated cones are eliminated from further processing based on a distance of closest approach (DCA) filter or Compton line (CL) filter or both. A DCA filter removes events for which the closest approach of the cone to the known source exceeds a threshold distance. A CL filter removes events more than a threshold distance from the Compton line(s) for one (or more) E₀ value(s) of the known emitter(s) in the target volume.

Step 721 starts a loop through N events, by selecting the next source event, either sequentially or at random from all the N source events. The loop through all events is repeated in some embodiments for multiple iterations, with L representing the number of iterations. In a previous description of the SOE, the events are chosen at random with replacement. Thus, when choosing each of N events, some events may be selected more than once during one iteration, while other events are skipped altogether in the iteration. In various embodiments of the claimed invention, the order of events is chosen either sequentially or at random but without replacement, as depicted in FIG. 7, so that all N events are selected during each iteration. Thus, in some embodiments, the plurality of N source events is used once without replacement as the current source event, during each iteration of the L iterations. In other embodiments with other novel features, step 721 is replaced by the previous method of selecting the next of N events with replacement.

In step 723, it is determined whether this is the first iteration through the N events. If so, control passes to step 725. In non-iterative methods, such as some embodiments based solely on closest approach to a known position, there is only one iteration, i.e., the first iteration.

In step 725, a position on the cone is selected at random as in the standard SOE approach (thus step 725 includes, in some embodiments, selecting for each source event a random location on the cone of possible locations for a corresponding source event), or, in some embodiments, based on proximity to the known cause of the emission event, e.g., the axis of the proton beam or centroid of the PET or SPECT source. In some of these embodiments, the initial energy E₀ is also determined in step 725 using the DCA E₀ correction. In embodiments that use a histogram of count of locations in each voxel as a probability density distribution, like an improved SOE method, the voxel including the selected location is incremented. Thus, in such embodiments, step 725 includes generating a histogram that indicates, for each voxel, a count of the selected locations that occur inside the voxel. In embodiments where a different measure of location “goodness” is used, e.g., proximity to a known cause of the emissions, the histogram is not used; and, no voxel has its count incremented. Control then passes to step 741.

In step 741, it is determined whether there are any more events to process during the current iteration, e.g., if the number of events processed is less than N. If so, then control passes back to step 721 to select the next event to process. If not, then control passes to step 743 and following, described below, to determine if there are any more iterations to be taken before a solution is accepted. Again if an iterative process is not used, such as in some embodiments of the DCA E₀ correction, then the number of iterations is complete, e.g., L=1.

If it is determined, in step 723 above, that this is not the first iteration through the N events, then control passes to step 731. In step 731, another random location is selected on the surface of the cone and inside the target volume. The goodness of both locations is compared and the better location is retained. In the previous SOE, the goodness is based on the counts of locations in the voxel containing the location, using Equation 4A. In an improved method developed here that is expected to lead to faster convergence, the contribution to the voxel count by the current location is removed, e.g., using Equation 4B above. In another embodiment, the goodness is based on proximity to a known location of the cause of the emissions, such as the axis of the proton beam or the centroid of the radioactive source used in PET or SPECT scans. The location closer to a known location of the cause of the emission is chosen as the current location for the event. Thus, in some embodiments, step 723 includes selecting a particular location on the cone within the target volume based on proximity to the set of one or more known positions in the target volume. Control then passes to step 741.

As described above, in step 741, it is determined whether there are any more events to process during the current iteration, e.g., if the number of events processed is less than N. If so, then control passes to back to step 721 to select the next event to process. If not, then control passes to step 743.

In step 743, it is determined whether there are any more iterations. For example, if it is predetermined to perform a large number L of iterations, then it is determined if the number of iterations so far performed is less than L. If so, then control passes to step 745. In another embodiment, it is determined whether enough iterations have been performed based on whether some other convergence conditions is satisfied, e.g., the spread of locations is not reduced between successive iterations. For example, if the spread of locations is reduced by at least a threshold amount, then the convergence condition has not been satisfied, and another iteration is to be performed. As another example, a count is kept of the number of cones for which the point of the cone was moved. If the percentage of cones with moved points is less than a threshold (e.g., 1%) then the condition for convergence is satisfied and the reconstruction for this solution instance is stopped. If the condition for convergence is not satisfied, then control passes to step 745.

In step 745, the number of iterations performed is incremented, and all events are replaced, that is all events are available for selection of the next event. Control passes back to step 721 to loop through N events for the next iteration.

If it is determined in step 743 that there are NOT any more iterations (e.g., the one or more conditions for convergence are satisfied), then, in step 747, the current set of N locations for the N events are saved as the solution set of locations. Thus, in some embodiments, the loop over L iterations over the N events includes determining a solution comprising a set of N solution locations for the N source events from the SOE iterative algorithm after L iterations by updating for each source event during each iteration the selected location on the corresponding cone based at least in part on values of the counts in the histogram, and updating the histogram based on the updated selected location for each source event during each iteration.

In some embodiments, the one solution set is enough. However, according to some embodiments, M different solution sets are desired. In this embodiment, M statistically independent solution sets are determined. A statistically independent solution set is obtained by initiating the process with a different set of random locations. In these embodiments, step 747 passes control to step 751.

In step 751, it is determined whether the number of solution sets is less than the target number M. If so, then another solution set is needed; and, control passes to step 753.

In step 753. The next solution is started by setting the number of iterations completed to zero, or otherwise setting the convergence conditions to “not satisfied;” and, sending control back to step 743 described above. Thus, in some embodiments, steps are repeated for a plurality of M instances of the SOE iterative algorithm by selecting for each source event M different random locations on the cone to initiate the plurality of M instances and to determine a plurality of M instances of a solution.

If it is determined in step 751 that the number of solution sets is NOT less than the target number M, i.e., that M solution sets have been obtained, then control passes to step 755. In step 755, the M solution sets are combined, by combining the M values for the location for each event. In some embodiments, the combination is determined by computing an average x, y and z coordinate of the M locations for each event. In other embodiments, other combinations are used. For example, in some embodiments, the median x, y and z values are used of the M locations for each event. In some embodiments, all M locations for each event are plotted on the same image. Thus step 755 includes combining the plurality of M instances of the solution location for each source event to determine a combined solution location for each of the N source events. Control then passes to step 761.

In embodiments in which one solution is sufficient, steps 751, 753, 753 and 755 are executed with M=1, or steps 751, 753, 753 and 755 are omitted and control passes directly from step 747 to step 761.

In step 761, data is presented on a display device based on at least one location from the final (one or combined) solution set for a corresponding event. For example, data is presented on a computer display device such as a monitor or printer. The data can be a listing of one or more locations in the one or combined solution set, a graph of one or more locations of the one or combined solution set, a 2D image of one or more locations of the one or combined solution set, an image in which the color or greyscale represents the initial energy E₀ of a point representing a location. In some embodiments, the display device is another device that uses the information from the combined solution set, such as a proton beam generator that uses the information from the locations to determine to continue to fire a proton beam or to stop based on determining that a sufficient or insufficient dose has been delivered to a target tissue or that an excessive dose has or has not yet been delivered to an non-target organ at risk, or that a dose is being delivered incorrectly by any other measure. Thus step 761 includes presenting, on a display device, data indicating the particular location in the target volume.

FIG. 9 is an image that illustrates an example simulated image in which each emission event contributes a color to a corresponding pixel based on the initial emission energy, E₀, according to an embodiment. The horizontal axis indicates distance in the target volume along the Z axis of FIG. 2 and the vertical axis indicates distance in the target volume along the X axis of FIG. 2. The proton beam and Bragg peak where the most energy is concentrated are clearly evident from the emission of prompt gamma rays detected by a simulated Compton camera.

3. EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS

Example embodiments include demonstrating the techniques for proton beam therapy, PET imagery and SPECT imagery. An advantage of the method as applied to PET and SPECT, among others, is that gamma rays emitted by radioactive tracers have a single energy which is generally known (e.g., 511 keV for PRT tracers used with FDG) whereas gamma rays emitted as a result of proton beam interaction with the tissue have a wide spectrum of energies.

3.1 Clinical Compton Camera

In some example embodiments, a one or two stage Compton camera is used that is configured to be suitable for proton beam monitoring in a clinical setting. FIG. 10A through FIG. 10D are photographs that illustrate an example clinical two-stage Compton camera and use, according to an embodiment. FIG. 10A depicts a portion of an assembly 1010 of one stage of a clinical Compton Camera. This assembly 1010 includes a 4×8 array of CZT crystals 1012 made up of 8 2×2 sub-arrays 1013 of CZT crystals, for which four sub-arrays in a row are evident in FIG. 10A. An adjacent row of 4 sub-arrays are covered by a circuit board 1014. Along an outer edge adjacent to each 2×2 sub-array 1013 is a circuit board 1015 configured to be connected to an array controller for the 2×2 sub-array 1013. Each crystal 1012 is 2 cm×2 cm×1.5 cm, and is pixelated into 11×11 in Z- and X-directions on the anode with a planar cathode. The dashed line 1002 is parallel to an axis of a line source of targeted emissions, e.g., parallel to the Z axis, and indicates a preferred orientation of the arrays relative to the line source. Unlike a previous Compton Camera stage, e.g., described above with reference to step 703, this embodiment of a CC stage includes twice as many crystals, in order to detect wider angle scattering events and improve the measurement statistics for clinical settings. Doubling the array area approximately doubles the number of raw interactions (or filtered interactions) available for image reconstruction, as summarized in Table 1, where D2C imaging refers to DCA and Compton Line filtering described in the following sections and array size is given in cm. Note that a 4 cm×4 cm array corresponds to a 2×2 crystal array.

TABLE 1 Number of PGs used for each reconstruction for each detector size. Detector size Standard imaging D2C imaging D2C/standard ratio 4 × 4 cm² 46332 985 0.021 4 × 8 cm² 76802 1810 0.024 4 × 12 cm²  108260 2811 0.026 A previous publication indicated a 2×8 array of 2 m CZT crystals (4 cm×16 cm) would suffice for some uses. Given the number of events lost due to D2C filtering, it is advantageous to have an array of at least 4×4 CZT crystals (8 cm×8 cm), and preferably 4×8 crystals (8 cm×16 cm) as depicted in FIG. 10A.

FIG. 10B depicts components of each of two identical stages 1001 a and 1001 b. The detector array assembly 1010 in each includes the circuit boards 1014 and 4×8 array of CZT crystal detectors 1012, as depicted in FIG. 10A, with a copper plate cover 1016 that serves as a Faraday cage to shield the CZT crystals from external electromagnetic fields. Each stage also has eight array controllers 1020 distributed around the detector array 1010, each array controller 1020 controls one 2×2 CZT detector sub-array 1013. The dashed lines 1003 are parallel to an axis of a line source of targeted emissions, e.g., parallel to the Z axis, and indicates a preferred orientation of the arrays relative to any line source that might be used. FIG. 10C is a photograph that depicts the two stages 1001 a and 1001 b below a support table for a subject, each closed up, and stacked with 1001 a as stage 1 and 1001 b as stage 2, configured for clinical use, according to an embodiment. Dashed line 1004 is parallel to the line source of gamma particles to be measured. FIG. 10D is a photograph that depicts the two stages 1001 a and 1001 b below a support table 1030 for a phantom subject 1090, in range of a proton beam source 1040 that will direct a proton beam parallel to dashed line 1005, according to an embodiment.

3.2 Proton Beam

In some embodiments, the interactions of a proton beams with human tissue, or phantoms for such tissues, are determined. For in vivo range verification, adequate data to allow for localization of the beam range to within 1 to 2 mm is most advantageously collected during the delivery of only a fraction (for instance <20%) of the dose delivered for each treatment field of a daily treatment. This gives an operator of the proton beam enough time to cut off the therapy if the early returns indicate a misplaced beam or Bragg peak before too much damage is sustained by the surrounding organs not being targeted by the therapy. For standard proton therapy fractionation schemes, as simulated here below, this means the goal for prompt gamma range verification would be to produce images with delivery of only about 25 centiGray (cGy. 1 cGy=1×10⁻² Gray, a Gray is a radiation absorbed dose measurement unit). 25 cGy is about equal to 4.5×10⁷ protons.

To address such uses, input data has been generated to test the improved, SOE-based reconstruction code by using a previously developed Monte Carlo (MC) model that simulates Compton camera (CC) measurements of characteristic prompt gamma (PG) emission from tissue irradiated with a proton pencil beam (Peterson et al 2010). In the following, the MC model and the SOE implementation is described as an example embodiment.

To generate the secondary gamma input data, an MC model developed with the Geant4 (version 9.4 patch 1) toolkit (Agostinelli et al 2003) was used, as previously used and described by Peterson et al (2010) and Robertson et al (2011). The model consists of a clinical proton beam irradiating a tissue phantom with a three-stage CC positioned above the tissue phantom to measure the production of secondary gamma emissions. The model includes a 110 MeV proton pencil beam with a Gaussian spatial profile (σ=1 mm) irradiating a 10 cm×10 cm×10 cm soft tissue phantom with composition and density as defined by ICRU Report 49 (1993).

The MC model tracks secondary gamma emissions (CP and PA) produced by nuclear scattering between the proton beam and nuclei in the tissue phantom. When any of these gamma emissions sequentially Compton scatter in the first and second detector stages, followed by a Compton scatter or photoelectric absorption in the third stage, the MC model records the position (x_(i), y_(i), z_(i)) and energy deposition (E_(i)) in each detector stage in an output file. Along with the scattering information, the model records the gamma emission's initial energy E₀ (or “true” energy) and the location at which it was emitted (or “true” origin). The object of the reconstruction is to closely emulate the distribution made up of the true initial energy and true location of multiple emission events.

The recorded gamma interaction positions and energy depositions in the CC are used to calculate the initial energy (E₀) of the gamma emission using Equation 2A. After E₀ has been calculated, the initial scattering angle θ₁ is calculated using the Compton scattering formula in Equation 3. The detector uncertainties, such as position resolution, energy resolution, and Doppler broadening, are not included in the MC model. Therefore, unless the gamma scatters before reaching the detector, the calculated value for E₀ and the true energy (recorded by the MC model) will be equal.

When a calculation was completed with the MC model, the recorded position and energy deposition of each gamma scatter in the CC, along with the calculated values of E₀ and θ₁, were output using ROOT, a C++ based data analysis package (Brun et al. 1997). In addition, the true origin of each gamma emission was included in the ROOT output file so that the SOE reconstructed images could be compared with the MC true origin distributions in the irradiated phantom.

In this example, the algorithm was terminated after 100,000 iterations (L=100,000) The size v of the voxels used is an algorithm parameter referenced here as the voxel probability parameter (VPP). The pseudo-random numbers used for random selections were generated using a combined Tausworthe generator (L'Ecuyer 1996) implemented in the ROOT package. For this implementation of the SOE algorithm, it is desirable that the pseudo-random numbers be equi-distributed but not necessarily unique; they are used in different ways and with millions of origin cones which already have unique characteristics. The combined Tausworthe generator is maximally equi-distributed and relatively fast. An array of 10000019 uniform random numbers in the interval [0, 1), which includes zero but excludes 1, were generated and numbers were drawn as needed from the list, in order to improve the performance of the algorithm. To improve convergence, Equation 4B was used to subtract the current location from the histogram, and the N events on each iteration were selected without replacement, as described above. In most cases, using Equation 4B does not produce a significant difference. However, it was found that this improvement to the SOE algorithm is much less likely to move the representative position from a position with a larger probability to a position with a smaller probability, thus allowing the SOE calculation to converge faster and more completely. It was also found that stepping sequentially through the list of detected gamma emissions and ensuring that each gamma emission is tested once for each iteration improves the convergence of the algorithm.

After the predefined number of iterations, the SOE algorithm records the 3D coordinates of the final representative position of each detected gamma emission. In some embodiments, the “final images” of the gamma emission are then constructed by binning the final 3D coordinates according to the desired image resolution, which may be smaller than the voxel resolution for the histogram. Therefore, the resolution of the final images is not determined by the size v of the origins histogram voxels used by the SOE algorithm. However, the quality of the final images may be affected by the VPP value. Using a smaller value for the VPP and, therefore, smaller voxels for the origins histogram, may improve the resolution of the reconstructed images. However, using a smaller VPP (i.e. smaller histogram voxels) means there are more voxels in the image field of view (FOV), which in turn means that more detected gamma emissions are needed to fill these voxels and overcome the statistical noise in the origins histogram. To test these effects, the SOE algorithm was run with the input data containing 1 million (1M) and 4 million (4M) detected gamma emissions using VPP values of 0.5 mm³, 1.0 mm³, and 2.0 mm³. These numbers of gamma emissions were chosen on the basis of previous studies, which estimated the number of triple-scattered gamma emissions that can be measured by a CC in a clinical setting to be between 1M and 4M (Peterson et al. 2010).

Results show that the SOE algorithm as modified above can be used to reconstruct clinically useful images (with a precision of 1 mm or better) of the secondary gamma emission produced during proton pencil beam therapy. Visual comparison of the SOE reconstructed and the true MC origin images shows good agreement in the plane parallel to the CC detector stages. On the basis of the results in the above study, it is concluded that (1) the SOE algorithm is an effective method for reconstructing images of a proton pencil beam from the data collected by an ideal CC and (2) the images produced by the SOE algorithm accurately model the distal falloff of secondary gamma emission during proton irradiation. In this study, the images predicted the distal falloff depths to within 0.6 mm³. When CC detector position and energy uncertainties are included, the number of gamma emissions required is likely to increase. However, further improvements to the algorithm, described above, such as the use of M independent solutions, DCA filtering, and Compton line filtering are expected to compensate for some of these effects. Thus, in this embodiment, the source event is a gamma emission and the cause of the source event is a proton beam interacting with an atom in the subject.

To detect the image with only about 20% of the dose delivered would mean increasing the prompt gamma detection efficiency of the prototype Compton camera from about 100 prompt gamma rays per cGy up to about 2500 prompt gamma rays per cGy.

The embodiment using M statistically independent solutions can help improve the image signal-to-noise ratio. Further, the embodiment may be significantly more suitable than the SOE alone for processing images acquired from a much smaller set of measured gamma emissions (e.g., with the first 20% of the prescribed dose). Due to the random iterative process employed by the SOE method, the final position of each gamma emission in each of the M images will be statistically independent. Each image is of the same object (the gamma emission) and, thus, the final pixel values in the region of the PG emission will be very similar for each solution. In contrast, the final statistical noise patterns introduced by the method in each image will be independent of all other images. By summing (or averaging) the corresponding pixel values of all M images, the pixel values for objects (PG emission) in the image will increase by a factor of M (the number of independent images used), however the statistical noise patterns will only increase by a factor √M, thus effectively reducing the effects of noise in the image, and producing a final image with a greater signal-to-noise ratio.

3.3 PET Source

In some embodiments, the Compton camera and method is used as a substitute for more expensive and complex positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. PET is an important and widely used medical imaging technique that produces three-dimensional images of functional processes in the body. PET is used in clinical oncology, for clinical diagnosis of certain brain diseases such as those causing various types of dementia, and as a research tool for mapping human brain and heart function. PET imaging is particularly useful for imaging various processes taking place inside the brain of a patient. The system detects pairs of gamma rays emitted indirectly by a positron-emitting radionuclide (tracer), which is introduced into the body on a biologically active molecule. Upon contact with an electron, the positron is annihilated and the energy is emitted as a pair of oppositely propagating gamma rays. Three-dimensional images of tracer concentration within the body are then constructed by computer analysis. If the biologically active molecule chosen for PET is fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG), an analogue of glucose, the concentrations of tracer imaged will indicate tissue metabolic activity as it corresponds to the regional glucose uptake. Use of this tracer to explore the possibility of cancer metastasis (e.g., spreading to other sites or tissues) is the most common type of PET scan in standard medical care (e.g., is used in about 90% of current scans).

The energy of the gamma rays emitted by the FDG is 511 keV. On a minority basis, many other radioactive tracers are used in PET to image the tissue concentration of other types of molecules of interest. Each radioactive tracer emits gamma rays having a specific energy (may be different from 511 keV).

PET imaging determines the spatial distribution/position of the tracers emitting the pairs of gamma rays by determining coincident pairs of gamma rays emitted in almost opposite directions. The coincident pair of gamma rays determine a “line of response” (LOR) corresponding to each pair. The LORs are then used to reconstruct the spatial distribution and concentration of the radioactive tracer. A conventional PET scanner includes a plurality of detectors arranged in a ring around the imaged volume. One of the major shortcomings of the PET has to do with the high costs (both of the apparatus and of the operation) associated with the conventional PET scanner.

Two-stage CCs have low efficiency for gamma emissions with energy greater than about 1 MeV, so Kurfess et al (2000) suggested the use of three-stage CCs that do not require the gamma emissions to be completely absorbed. However, one-stage or two-stage CCs may be suitable for imaging applications of low-energy gamma rays emitted by many tracers used in PET imaging, such as the 511 keV gamma ray particles emitted by the tracer fixed to FDG. In a two-stage CC, for a “double scatter” event, the gamma ray Compton scatters in the first stage and is photo-absorbed in the second stage (or second detector of the first stage). E₀ is determined using just the two deposited energies ΔE₁ and ΔE₂ Equation 2B; and, the cone angle θ₁ is determined using Equation 3.

The target volume is chosen to include a spatial distribution of radioactive tracers/isotopes emitting gamma rays. The distribution of radioactive tracers inside a patient is a result of administering to the patient a biologically active molecule, such as FDG. The Compton camera is disposed to detect the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive tracers/isotopes inside the target volume. Thus in this embodiment, the source event is a gamma ray emission and the cause of the source event is a positron-emitting radionuclide as used in positron emission tomography (PET) medical imaging.

Because the initial energy (E₀) of the isotope used for medical imaging (e.g., 511 keV for PET) is already known, the data collected from the Compton camera data is preprocessed, in some embodiments, to select only double scatter events where ΔE₁+ΔE₂=E₀ for the particular radioisotope used, such as 511 keV. Thus, in some embodiments, the method includes selecting from each of only two detectors in one or more stages of the Compton camera within the coincidence time interval, location and deposited energy wherein a sum of the deposited energies in the two detectors is about equal to an energy of a gamma ray emitted by annihilation of the positron produced by the positron-emitting radionuclide.

3.4 SPECT Source

In some embodiment, the Compton camera and method is used as a substitute for more expensive and complex single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging. The technique requires delivery of a gamma-emitting radioisotope (also called a radionuclide) into the living subject, normally through injection into the bloodstream. A marker radioisotope is attached to a specific ligand to create a radioligand, whose properties bind it to certain types of tissues. This marriage allows the combination of ligand and radiopharmaceutical to be carried and bound to a place of interest in the body, where the ligand concentration is seen by a gamma camera. In some embodiments, the radio radionuclide is a soluble dissolved ion, such as an isotope of gallium(III).

SPECT imaging is performed by using a gamma camera to acquire multiple 2-D images (also called projections), from multiple angles. A computer is then used to apply a tomographic reconstruction algorithm to the multiple projections, yielding a 3-D data set. This data set may then be manipulated to show thin slices along any chosen axis of the body, similar to those obtained from other tomographic techniques. SPECT is similar to PET in its use of radioactive tracer material and detection of gamma rays. In contrast with PET, however, the tracers used in SPECT emit gamma radiation that is measured directly, whereas PET tracers emit positrons that annihilate with electrons up to a few millimeters away, causing two gamma photons to be emitted in opposite directions. A PET scanner detects these emissions “coincident” in time, which provides more radiation event localization information and, thus, higher spatial resolution images than SPECT (which has about 1 cm resolution). SPECT scans, however, are significantly less expensive than PET scans, in part because they are able to use longer-lived more easily obtained radioisotopes than PET.

Thus use of a Compton camera for a SPECT radionuclide imaging is directly analogous to the use for PET imaging. If the radionuclide gamma emission energy is low enough, a two stage Compton camera may suffice, as described above. Thus, in this embodiment, the source event is a gamma ray emission and the cause of the source event is a gamma-emitting radioisotope as used in single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) medical imaging.

3.4 Example Compton Filtering

FIG. 11A is a graph that illustrates example Compton lines in measured E₁ values plotted against the calculated scattering angle (θ₁) from raw ⁶⁰Co point source data, according to an embodiment. The horizontal axis 1112 indicates the first scattering angle θ₁ in degrees, and the vertical axis 1114 indicates energy deposited in the earliest detection, ΔE₁, in MeV. Traces 1116 a and 1116 b indicate the theoretical CLs calculated with Equation 8 for 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV gamma emissions (γ), respectively. Two distinct bands of data can be seen in the measured data around the theoretical CLs. The data points that lie within these bands are identified as “good scatter events” that are desirably used for the example image reconstruction, since they roughly correspond to the theoretical predictions of Compton scattering predicted by Equation 8. FIG. 11B is a graph that illustrates example Compton lines in measured E₁ values plotted against the calculated scattering angle (θ₁) from raw ⁶⁰Co point source data after DCA filtering, according to an embodiment. The horizontal and vertical axes 1112 and 1114, respectively, are as described above. As can be seen in FIG. 11B, DCA filtering acts to remove much of the data that does not lie along the Compton lines for the ⁶⁰Co data, indicating that the data along these lines account for much of the γ events whose cones-of-origin lie closest to the known γ source position.

For CL filtering, the measured ΔE₁ are tested for a given θ₁ for each γ falls within a preset range around the theoretical value predicted by Equation 8 by using its E₀ (from DCA) and θ₁ (from Equation 3). This CL filter can then be described by the relationship if Equations 9a and 9b

$\begin{matrix} {{\Delta \; E_{1}}<={{CL}^{+}*E_{0}\frac{\alpha \left( {1 - {\cos \; \theta_{1}}} \right)}{1 + {\alpha \left( {1 - {\cos \; \theta_{1}}} \right)}}}} & \left( {9\; a} \right) \\ {{\Delta \; E_{1}}>={{CL}^{-}*E_{0}\frac{\alpha \left( {1 - {\cos \; \theta_{1}}} \right)}{1 + {\alpha \left( {1 - {\cos \; \theta_{1}}} \right)}}}} & \left( {9\; b} \right) \end{matrix}$

where CL⁺ and CL⁻ are the upper and lower limits, respectively, of the CL filter expressed in percentage above or below the theoretical ΔE₁ which is acceptable. For CL filtering, if the measured ΔE₁ value for a γ satisfies the relationships of Equations 9a and 9b for the pre-determined CL⁺ and CL⁻ limits, then the measured event is kept in step 771, and used for image reconstruction. If not, the measured event is removed from the data in step 771, and not used for reconstruction. FIG. 12A shows the ΔE₁ vs θ₁ plot for the measured ⁶⁰Co data after CL filtering, according to an embodiment. The horizontal axis 1212 indicates the first scattering angle θ₁ in degrees, and the vertical axis 1214 indicates energy deposited in the earliest detection, ΔE₁, in MeV. For this example, it was found that a CL⁺=1.04 (4% above the theoretical ΔE₁ value) and CL⁻=0.9 (10% below the theoretical ΔE₁ value) provided the best results for image reconstruction. The resulting upper and lower bounds on E₁ for each of the E₀ peaks in the source (1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV, respectively) are shown as pairs 1216 and 1217, respectively, of dotted lines. Events with ΔE₁ values outside those two sets of boundaries are removed before further processing. This is the effect of CL filtering on the event data kept for further processing. Such CL filtering is expected to correct for energy measurement resolution limitations and Doppler effects.

In some embodiments, the filtered data is used with the DCA E₀ correction instead of the SOE or other reconstruction algorithm. FIG. 12B shows ΔE₁ vs θ₁ distribution for DCA+CL filtered ⁶⁰Co double scatter data after DCA E₀ correction, according to an embodiment. In this embodiment, the data depicted in FIG. 12A that passes the CL filter provides a very close approximation of the two theoretical Compton lines 1116 a and 1116 b, respectively, depicted in FIG. 11A.

In some embodiments, good results are obtained even without CL filtering, using just E₀ energy determination and DCA filtering. In these embodiments, one can determine E₀ (using DCA energy determination or other methods, such as knowledge of one or more particle source energies, E₀), then correct ΔE₂ using ΔE₂=E₀−ΔE₁ (that is, replace the measured value of E₂ with the calculated value based on the difference between E₀ and ΔE₁) to get back to the data similar to that presented in FIG. 12B without going through the CL filter step described in FIG. 12A.

3.5 CL Techniques with Point Source

In these example embodiments, DCA processing, with or without DCA filtering or CL filtering or both, produce selected E₀ and source coordinates. The Compton camera measured θ and interaction position (x,y,z) coordinates and ΔE₁ are processed into intensity maps or density histograms, or are sent to an image reconstruction program to produce the image of the incident radiation. A number of known reconstruction programs may be used to perform this step. The examples provided herein use the SOE algorithm, but other embodiments use this method with other algorithms without deviating from the spirit of the invention. The final image that is generated may be one-dimensional, two-dimensional, or three-dimensional.

The prototype CC imager used for this example is shown in FIG. 8. The prototype CC contains four detector stages, each composed of an independent gamma detection platform, linked together electronically to form a single Compton camera. Each detection stage contains a 4 cm×4 cm array of CdZnTe crystals (two stages with 20 mm×20 mm×15 mm crystals and two stages with 20 mm×20 mm×10 mm crystals) with each crystal pixelated 11×11 in the x and y directions on the planar cathode.

For Compton imaging measurements, the CC can be configured to measure γ events within each stage independently (single-stage mode), or require that multiple stages measure an event within a preset configuration window before the event data is recorded (multi-stage mode). The number of times an incident photon or particle is required to interact can also be configured. “Double-coincidence” mode requires at least two interactions in a single stage in single-stage mode or at least two stages to record an event within the coincidence window in multi-stage mode. “Triple-coincidence” mode requires at least three interactions to occur in a stage for single-stage mode or at least three stages to record an event within the coincidence window for multi-stage mode before the event data is recorded. When an interaction event occurs in single-stage mode, the data recorded includes: the energy deposition, (x,y,z) coordinates of the interaction, and the stage in which the event occurred. In multi-stage mode, the data recorded includes: the energy deposited, the (x,y,z) coordinates of each interaction, and the stage in which each interaction occurred, which is all recorded as a single event.

To test the new Compton imaging method using DCA E₀ correction and filtering, measurements of γ emission from ⁶⁰Co, ¹³⁷Cs, and ²²Na point sources were made with the CC. This included measurements taken with each source centered in front of the detector (z=0 mm), as shown in FIG. 13A and FIG. 13B. FIG. 13A is a photograph and FIG. 13B is a block diagram that each depicts the four-stage CC of FIG. 8 placed relative to a point source in a water phantom, according to an embodiment. The four stages 801, 802, 803 and 804, and the SCT 810, are as described above with respect to FIG. 8. The polymer tank 1310 holds water for a water phantom. A point source 1320 is disposed at the origin, (0,0,0) of the horizontal (YZ) and vertical (X) coordinate system close to the location of a CZT array detector 1381 in the first stage 801. Due to the low activity (<1 μCi) of the experimental point sources, data was collected in single-stage/double-coincidence mode, thus recording all double-scatter and triple-scatter interactions that occurred within a single stage of the CC, the first stage 801. For each single-stage measurement, the recorded coincidence γ interactions were saved in a list-mode format data file. Additionally, single-stage energy spectra measurements were made for each point source (positioned at z=0 mm) in which the total energy deposited by each γ (single interactions and multiple interaction events) was recorded and saved in a histogram file with energy bins of 10 keV.

For this test, the measured PG data was processed using the DCA E₀ correction, then DCA filtered, and finally CL filtered. Subsequently, images of the PG emission were produced using a Stochastic Origin Ensemble (SOE) based reconstruction software for the raw, unfiltered CC data and for the DCA+CL processed data. Comparisons of the images produced with both datasets are shown. The raw unfiltered images demonstrate the power of the DCA approach in step 715 of FIG. 7; and the filtered images demonstrate the advantages of the filtering step 771 in the method of FIG. 7.

To ensure the DCA method was correctly able to determine E₀, it was tested with a measurement of photon or particle emission from the ⁶⁰Co and ¹³⁷Cs point sources combined. Assuming the DCA E₀ correction is working as expected, the individual spectral lines should appear in the DCA determined E₀ spectrum of the combined data file. Since ⁶⁰Co has E₀ peaks at 1.17 and 1.33 MeV, and ¹³⁷Cs has a peak at 662 keV, the DCA E₀ correction was calculated for a range of photon or particle energies from 0 to 1.5 MeV in increments of 10 keV. For each interaction, each energy increment in the selected range was used to calculate the DCA, and the value corresponding to the smallest DCA was chosen as the E₀ of the photon or particle.

FIG. 14 is a graph that illustrates an example point source energy spectra using traditional processing from a Compton camera compared to a reconstructed spectrum using DCA E₀ correction, according to an embodiment. A traditional Compton spectrum is the spectrum measured by the software that sums the total energy deposited by each gamma interaction (single scatter, double, scatter, triple scatter, quadruple scatter, etc.) and is what would be expected to be measured by a traditional spectrometer. The horizontal axis 1402 indicates inferred incident gamma energy (E₀) in MeV. The vertical axis 1404 indicates the relative number of photons observed, normalized to 1 for the peak at 0.66 MeV. FIG. 14 shows the resulting DCA correction process looking at double or triple scatter events from the known ⁶⁰Co/¹³⁷Cs data as trace 1408; compared with the traditional measured Compton spectrum from for ¹³⁷Cs alone, trace 1406 a with a peak at 0.66 MeV; and ⁶⁰Co alone, trace 1406 b with the two peaks at 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV. The DCA E₀ correction method is easily able to identify the spectral peaks present in the data using only ΔE₁, the position of the first and second interactions, and the point source position. The DCA E₀ correction spectrum matches the traditional measured Compton spectrum very well, showing peaks at 0.66 MeV, 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV.

After applying the DCA E₀ correction and Compton line filtering, which corrects for energy measurement resolution and Doppler effects, the data is reconstructed using a reconstruction algorithm. In this example embodiment, the modified SOE algorithm described above is used, with Equation 4B.

FIG. 15A through FIG. 15C are images that illustrate the inferred distribution of gamma sources in the XZ plane, according to an embodiment. In FIG. 15A, FIG. 15B and FIG. 15C, the horizontal axis 1502 indicates distance along the Z axis in millimeters, from −160 mm to +160 mm); the vertical axis indicates distance along the X axis in millimeters (from −160 mm to +160 mm); and the greyscale indicated number of events in relative units. These images demonstrate the 2D image reconstruction capabilities of the example methods for the centered ⁶⁰Co source. FIG. 15A depicts the results of SOE processing using unfiltered data. FIG. 15B depicts the results of SOE processing using DCA filtered data. FIG. 15C depicts the results of SOE processing using DCA+CL filtered data. Image quality is greatly improved using the filtering, and most of the noisy events are removed from the image. FIG. 15D and FIG. 15E are graphs that illustrate example 1D profiles of numbers of events in voxels along the X direction, and numbers of events in voxels along the Z direction, respectively, according to an embodiment. In FIG. 15D, the horizontal axis 1512 indicates distance in the X direction in millimeters relative to the point source; and the vertical axis 1514 indicates relative number of events, normalized separately for each trace to 1 at the peak. Traces 1516 a, 1516 b, 1516 c indicate unfiltered data, DCA filtered data and DCA+CL filtered data, respectively. In FIG. 15E, the horizontal axis 1522 indicates distance in the Z direction in millimeters relative to the location of the point source; and the vertical axis 1524 indicates relative number of events, normalized to 1 at the peak value. Traces 1526 a, 1526 b, 1526 c indicate unfiltered data, DCA filtered data and DCA+CL filtered data, respectively. Both graphs show that, as more filtering is done, the events are better localized to the vicinity of the point source.

To determine the full width at half maximum (FWHM) for each data set, Gaussians were fit to the 1D profiles. Table 2 shows the results of these fits for the ⁶⁰Co source, as well as the ²²Na and ¹³⁷Cs sources used. The DCA+CL filtering technique gives the smallest FWHM in the X and Z directions, with improvements of 71% and 67% observed in the X and Z directions for the ⁶⁰Co source. Similar improvements are also seen with the other two point sources used.

TABLE 2 Improved width of peaks by filtering. Spatial Spatial FWHM X FWHM Z Res. X Res. Z (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) Raw ⁶⁰Co 49.50 49.19 4.90 4.86 DCA ⁶⁰Co 28.19 25.83 2.79 2.56 DCA + CL ⁶⁰Co 14.64 16.00 1.45 1.58 Raw ²²Na 42.20 43.33 4.18 4.29 DCA ²²Na 19.55 19.61 1.93 1.94 DCA + CL ²²Na 11.64 14.99 1.15 1.48 Raw ¹³⁷Cs 63.13 59.11 6.25 5.85 DCA ¹³⁷Cs 14.40 20.20 1.67 2.00 DCA + CL ¹³⁷Cs 12.73 15.86 1.26 1.57

To quantify how the spatial resolution can be improved using the filtering, the Gaussian fits of the 1D X and Z profiles were considered to be the point spread functions of the CC system. Using this, the Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) for the raw (unfiltered), DCA filtered, and DCA+CL filtered images were calculated. FIG. 16A and FIG. 16B are graphs that illustrate example modulation transfer functions (MTF) for various filtering methods in the X and Z directions, respectively, according to an embodiment. The horizontal axis 1602 indicates wavenumber (spatial frequency) in lines per millimeter (l/mm or lpmm); and the vertical axis 1604 indicates MTF value in arbitrary units. Traces 1616 a and 1626 a indicate unfiltered data; traces 1616 b and 1626 b indicate DCA-filtered data; and, traces 1616 c and 1626 c indicate DCA+CL filtered data. If a minimum MTF of 10% for proper identification of an object in the image is used, then the highest achievable spatial resolution (D) in lines per millimeter (1/mm) for each dataset is

$\begin{matrix} {D = \frac{1}{2\; F}} & (10) \end{matrix}$

where F is the spatial frequency at which the MTF=10% of the input contrast of an object. 3.6 CL Techniques with Proton Pencil Beam

For this example, prompt gammas (PG) were measured with a CC during delivery of a 2 Gy dose to water with a 150-MeV proton pencil beam. For this example the CC was setup and configured to measure data in the same way as described above in section 3.5. The measured data was then processed using the DCA and CL methods and images of the raw, unfiltered data and the DCA+CL filtered data were reconstructed in the same manner as described above in section 3.5

The energy deposited and scatter angle of the PG in the CC stages were recorded and the “cone-of-origin” for each measured PG was calculated. Next, the PG data was filtered to keep only the interactions: 1) whose energy deposition in the CC and scatter angle agree with the theoretical energy deposition and scatter angles for characteristic PG energies emitted from water (determined using the Compton scatter formula), and 2) whose minimum distance between the cone-of-origin and the beam central axis was less than a pre-defined limit (1 cm for this study). Finally, images of the raw/unfiltered data and the filtered PG emission data were reconstructed.

FIG. 17A and FIG. 17B are images that illustrate example 2D maps of emissions from proton beam interactions with water for raw and filtered data, respectively, according to an embodiment. The horizontal axis 1702 indicates distance relative to the origin directly in front of the detector in millimeters in the Z direction which is along the beam (see FIG. 13A) relative to the origin directly in front of the detector; and, the vertical axis 1704 indicates the distance relative to the origin in millimeters the X direction which is perpendicular to the beam and parallel to the detector. The greyscale indicates the number of events at each voxel, with lines connecting sample greyscale values to particular voxels. While the unfiltered data in FIG. 17A seems to show numbers of events centered on the origin, with some elongation along the z axis. The DCA+CL filtered data in FIG. 17B clearly show more events to the right of the origin, a narrower beam to the right, and a distal fall off left of about −50 mm.

FIG. 17C is an image that illustrates an example 2D map of emissions from proton beam interactions with water for filtered data, according to an embodiment. The horizontal axis 1702 is as described above for FIG. 17A and FIG. 17B; and, the vertical axis 1734 indicates the distance relative to the origin in millimeters in the Y direction which is perpendicular to both the beam and the detector. The DCA+CL filtered data in FIG. 17C clearly show more events to the right of the origin, a narrow beam to the right, and a distal fall off left of about −50 mm FIG. 17D is a graph that illustrates example 1D along beam profiles of emissions from a proton beam interactions with water, according to an embodiment. The profiles displayed include: trace 1746 a that indicates an intended dose; trace 1746 b that indicates the raw, unfiltered data; and, trace 1746 c that indicates the DCA+CL filtered data. As can be seen, the filtered data in trace 1746 c more closely reveals the intended dose of trace 1746 a than does the nosey unfiltered data in trace 1746 b.

FIG. 17E is an image that illustrates an example 2D map of emissions from proton beam interactions with water for filtered data, according to an embodiment. The horizontal axis 1752 indicates the distance relative to the origin in millimeters in the Y direction which is perpendicular to both the beam and the detector; and the vertical axis 1704 is as described above for FIG. 17A and FIG. 17B. The DCA+CL filtered data in FIG. 17C clearly show a narrow beam in both the X and Y directions. FIG. 17F is a graph that illustrates example 1D cross beam profiles of emissions from the proton beam interactions with water, according to an embodiment. The profiles displayed include: trace 1766 a that indicates an intended dose; trace 1766 b that indicates the raw, unfiltered data in the X direction; trace 1766 c that indicates the DCA+CL filtered data in the Y direction; and, trace 1776 d that indicates the DCA+CL filtered data in the X direction. As can be seen, the filtered data in traces 1766 c and 1766 d more closely reveals the intended dose of trace 1766 a than does the nosey unfiltered data in trace 1766 b.

As demonstrated in FIG. 17A through FIG. 17F, in the filtered data, the distal fall off of the PG depth profile is clearly visible and correlates well with the distal dose falloff. Additionally, the filtered cross-field PG profiles correlate well with the lateral dose profile, and shifts of 2 mm in beam range were detectable.

4. COMPUTATIONAL HARDWARE OVERVIEW

FIG. 18 is a block diagram that illustrates a computer system 1800 upon which an embodiment of the invention may be implemented. Computer system 1800 includes a communication mechanism such as a bus 1810 for passing information between other internal and external components of the computer system 1800. Information is represented as physical signals of a measurable phenomenon, typically electric voltages, but including, in other embodiments, such phenomena as magnetic, electromagnetic, pressure, chemical, molecular atomic and quantum interactions. For example, north and south magnetic fields, or a zero and non-zero electric voltage, represent two states (0, 1) of a binary digit (bit). Other phenomena can represent digits of a higher base. A superposition of multiple simultaneous quantum states before measurement represents a quantum bit (qubit). A sequence of one or more digits constitutes digital data that is used to represent a number or code for a character. In some embodiments, information called analog data is represented by a near continuum of measurable values within a particular range. Computer system 1800, or a portion thereof, constitutes a means for performing one or more steps of one or more methods described herein.

A sequence of binary digits constitutes digital data that is used to represent a number or code for a character. A bus 1810 includes many parallel conductors of information so that information is transferred quickly among devices coupled to the bus 1810. One or more processors 1802 for processing information are coupled with the bus 1810. A processor 1802 performs a set of operations on information. The set of operations include bringing information in from the bus 1810 and placing information on the bus 1810. The set of operations also typically include comparing two or more units of information, shifting positions of units of information, and combining two or more units of information, such as by addition or multiplication. A sequence of operations to be executed by the processor 1802 constitutes computer instructions.

Computer system 1800 also includes a memory 1804 coupled to bus 1810. The memory 1804, such as a random access memory (RAM) or other dynamic storage device, stores information including computer instructions. Dynamic memory allows information stored therein to be changed by the computer system 1800. RAM allows a unit of information stored at a location called a memory address to be stored and retrieved independently of information at neighboring addresses. The memory 1804 is also used by the processor 1802 to store temporary values during execution of computer instructions. The computer system 1800 also includes a read only memory (ROM) 1806 or other static storage device coupled to the bus 1810 for storing static information, including instructions, that is not changed by the computer system 1800. Also coupled to bus 1810 is a non-volatile (persistent) storage device 1808, such as a magnetic disk or optical disk, for storing information, including instructions, that persists even when the computer system 1800 is turned off or otherwise loses power.

Information, including instructions, is provided to the bus 1810 for use by the processor from an external input device 1812, such as a keyboard containing alphanumeric keys operated by a human user, or a sensor. A sensor detects conditions in its vicinity and transforms those detections into signals compatible with the signals used to represent information in computer system 1800. Other external devices coupled to bus 1810, used primarily for interacting with humans, include a display device 1814, such as a cathode ray tube (CRT) or a liquid crystal display (LCD), for presenting images, and a pointing device 1816, such as a mouse or a trackball or cursor direction keys, for controlling a position of a small cursor image presented on the display 1814 and issuing commands associated with graphical elements presented on the display 1814.

In the illustrated embodiment, special purpose hardware, such as an application specific integrated circuit (IC) 1820, is coupled to bus 1810. The special purpose hardware is configured to perform operations not performed by processor 1802 quickly enough for special purposes. Examples of application specific ICs include graphics accelerator cards for generating images for display 1814, cryptographic boards for encrypting and decrypting messages sent over a network, speech recognition, and interfaces to special external devices, such as robotic arms and medical scanning equipment that repeatedly perform some complex sequence of operations that are more efficiently implemented in hardware.

Computer system 1800 also includes one or more instances of a communications interface 1870 coupled to bus 1810. Communication interface 1870 provides a two-way communication coupling to a variety of external devices that operate with their own processors, such as printers, scanners and external disks. In general the coupling is with a network link 1878 that is connected to a local network 1880 to which a variety of external devices with their own processors are connected. For example, communication interface 1870 may be a parallel port or a serial port or a universal serial bus (USB) port on a personal computer. In some embodiments, communications interface 1870 is an integrated services digital network (ISDN) card or a digital subscriber line (DSL) card or a telephone modem that provides an information communication connection to a corresponding type of telephone line. In some embodiments, a communication interface 1870 is a cable modem that converts signals on bus 1810 into signals for a communication connection over a coaxial cable or into optical signals for a communication connection over a fiber optic cable. As another example, communications interface 1870 may be a local area network (LAN) card to provide a data communication connection to a compatible LAN, such as Ethernet. Wireless links may also be implemented. Carrier waves, such as acoustic waves and electromagnetic waves, including radio, optical and infrared waves travel through space without wires or cables. Signals include man-made variations in amplitude, frequency, phase, polarization or other physical properties of carrier waves. For wireless links, the communications interface 1870 sends and receives electrical, acoustic or electromagnetic signals, including infrared and optical signals, which carry information streams, such as digital data.

The term computer-readable medium is used herein to refer to any medium that participates in providing information to processor 1802, including instructions for execution. Such a medium may take many forms, including, but not limited to, non-volatile media, volatile media and transmission media. Non-volatile media include, for example, optical or magnetic disks, such as storage device 1808. Volatile media include, for example, dynamic memory 1804. Transmission media include, for example, coaxial cables, copper wire, fiber optic cables, and waves that travel through space without wires or cables, such as acoustic waves and electromagnetic waves, including radio, optical and infrared waves. The term computer-readable storage medium is used herein to refer to any medium that participates in providing information to processor 1802, except for transmission media.

Common forms of computer-readable media include, for example, a floppy disk, a flexible disk, a hard disk, a magnetic tape, or any other magnetic medium, a compact disk ROM (CD-ROM), a digital video disk (DVD) or any other optical medium, punch cards, paper tape, or any other physical medium with patterns of holes, a RAM, a programmable ROM (PROM), an erasable PROM (EPROM), a FLASH-EPROM, or any other memory chip or cartridge, a carrier wave, or any other medium from which a computer can read. The term non-transitory computer-readable storage medium is used herein to refer to any medium that participates in providing information to processor 1802, except for carrier waves and other signals.

Logic encoded in one or more tangible media includes one or both of processor instructions on a computer-readable storage media and special purpose hardware, such as ASIC 1820.

Network link 1878 typically provides information communication through one or more networks to other devices that use or process the information. For example, network link 1878 may provide a connection through local network 1880 to a host computer 1882 or to equipment 1884 operated by an Internet Service Provider (ISP). ISP equipment 1884 in turn provides data communication services through the public, world-wide packet-switching communication network of networks now commonly referred to as the Internet 1890. A computer called a server 1892 connected to the Internet provides a service in response to information received over the Internet. For example, server 1892 provides information representing video data for presentation at display 1814.

The invention is related to the use of computer system 1800 for implementing the techniques described herein. According to one embodiment of the invention, those techniques are performed by computer system 1800 in response to processor 1802 executing one or more sequences of one or more instructions contained in memory 1804. Such instructions, also called software and program code, may be read into memory 1804 from another computer-readable medium such as storage device 1808. Execution of the sequences of instructions contained in memory 1804 causes processor 1802 to perform the method steps described herein. In alternative embodiments, hardware, such as application specific integrated circuit 1820, may be used in place of or in combination with software to implement the invention. Thus, embodiments of the invention are not limited to any specific combination of hardware and software.

The signals transmitted over network link 1878 and other networks through communications interface 1870, carry information to and from computer system 1800. Computer system 1800 can send and receive information, including program code, through the networks 1880, 1890 among others, through network link 1878 and communications interface 1870. In an example using the Internet 1890, a server 1892 transmits program code for a particular application, requested by a message sent from computer 1800, through Internet 1890, ISP equipment 1884, local network 1880 and communications interface 1870. The received code may be executed by processor 1802 as it is received, or may be stored in storage device 1808 or other non-volatile storage for later execution, or both. In this manner, computer system 1800 may obtain application program code in the form of a signal on a carrier wave.

Various forms of computer readable media may be involved in carrying one or more sequence of instructions or data or both to processor 1802 for execution. For example, instructions and data may initially be carried on a magnetic disk of a remote computer such as host 1882. The remote computer loads the instructions and data into its dynamic memory and sends the instructions and data over a telephone line using a modem. A modem local to the computer system 1800 receives the instructions and data on a telephone line and uses an infra-red transmitter to convert the instructions and data to a signal on an infra-red a carrier wave serving as the network link 1878. An infrared detector serving as communications interface 1870 receives the instructions and data carried in the infrared signal and places information representing the instructions and data onto bus 1810. Bus 1810 carries the information to memory 1804 from which processor 1802 retrieves and executes the instructions using some of the data sent with the instructions. The instructions and data received in memory 1804 may optionally be stored on storage device 1808, either before or after execution by the processor 1802.

FIG. 19 illustrates a chip set 1900 upon which an embodiment of the invention may be implemented. Chip set 1900 is programmed to perform one or more steps of a method described herein and includes, for instance, the processor and memory components described with respect to FIG. 18 incorporated in one or more physical packages (e.g., chips). By way of example, a physical package includes an arrangement of one or more materials, components, and/or wires on a structural assembly (e.g., a baseboard) to provide one or more characteristics such as physical strength, conservation of size, and/or limitation of electrical interaction. It is contemplated that in certain embodiments the chip set can be implemented in a single chip. Chip set 1900, or a portion thereof, constitutes a means for performing one or more steps of a method described herein.

In one embodiment, the chip set 1900 includes a communication mechanism such as a bus 1901 for passing information among the components of the chip set 1900. A processor 1903 has connectivity to the bus 1901 to execute instructions and process information stored in, for example, a memory 1905. The processor 1903 may include one or more processing cores with each core configured to perform independently. A multi-core processor enables multiprocessing within a single physical package. Examples of a multi-core processor include two, four, eight, or greater numbers of processing cores. Alternatively or in addition, the processor 1903 may include one or more microprocessors configured in tandem via the bus 1901 to enable independent execution of instructions, pipelining, and multithreading. The processor 1903 may also be accompanied with one or more specialized components to perform certain processing functions and tasks such as one or more digital signal processors (DSP) 1907, or one or more application-specific integrated circuits (ASIC) 1909. A DSP 1907 typically is configured to process real-world signals (e.g., sound) in real time independently of the processor 1903. Similarly, an ASIC 1909 can be configured to performed specialized functions not easily performed by a general purposed processor. Other specialized components to aid in performing the inventive functions described herein include one or more field programmable gate arrays (FPGA) (not shown), one or more controllers (not shown), or one or more other special-purpose computer chips.

The processor 1903 and accompanying components have connectivity to the memory 1905 via the bus 1901. The memory 1905 includes both dynamic memory (e.g., RAM, magnetic disk, writable optical disk, etc.) and static memory (e.g., ROM, CD-ROM, etc.) for storing executable instructions that when executed perform one or more steps of a method described herein. The memory 1905 also stores the data associated with or generated by the execution of one or more steps of the methods described herein.

5. ALTERATIONS, EXTENSIONS AND MODIFICATIONS

In the foregoing specification, the invention has been described with reference to specific embodiments thereof. It will, however, be evident that various modifications and changes may be made thereto without departing from the broader spirit and scope of the invention. The specification and drawings are, accordingly, to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense. Throughout this specification and the claims, unless the context requires otherwise, the word “comprise” and its variations, such as “comprises” and “comprising,” will be understood to imply the inclusion of a stated item, element or step or group of items, elements or steps but not the exclusion of any other item, element or step or group of items, elements or steps. Furthermore, the indefinite article “a” or “an” is meant to indicate one or more of the item, element or step modified by the article.

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1. A method implemented on a processor comprising: receiving data indicating a set of one or more known emission energies associated with a high energy particle source and determining a Compton line for each emission energy in the set; collecting from each of a plurality of detectors in one or more stages of a Compton camera within a coincidence time interval, location and deposited energy from an interaction associated with a single source event from a target volume of a subject; determining for the single source event an earliest deposited energy, E₁, and first scattering angle, θ₁, and a cone of possible locations for the source event based on the locations and deposited energies collected from the plurality of detectors in one or more stages of the Compton camera; determining whether E₁ is not within a predetermined interval of a value on the Compton line at the first scattering angle θ₁ for at least one of the set of one or more known emission energies; determining a particular location for the high energy particle source within the target volume without including the single source event, if E₁ is not within the predetermined interval for at least one of the set of one or more known emission energies; and presenting, on a display device, data indicating the particular location in the target volume.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the source event is a gamma ray emission and the cause of the source event is a proton beam interacting with an atom in the subject.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the source event is a gamma ray emission and the cause of the source event is a positron-emitting radionuclide as used in positron emission tomography (PET) medical imaging.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein collecting from each of the plurality of detectors in one or more stages of the Compton camera within the coincidence time interval, location and deposited energy from the interaction associated with the source event in the target volume of the subject further comprises selecting from each of only two detectors in one or more stages of the Compton camera within the coincidence time interval, location and deposited energy wherein a sum of the deposited energies in the two detectors is about equal to an energy of a gamma ray emitted by annihilation of the positron produced by the positron-emitting radionuclide.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the source event is a gamma ray emission and the cause of the source event is a gamma-emitting radioisotope as used in single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) medical imaging.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein collecting from each of the plurality of detectors in one or more stages of the Compton camera within the coincidence time interval, location and deposited energy from an interaction associated with the source event in the target volume of the subject further comprises selecting from each of only two detectors in one or more stages of the Compton camera within the coincidence time interval, location and deposited energy wherein a sum of the deposited energies in the two detectors is about equal to an energy of a gamma ray emitted by the gamma-emitting radioisotope.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein an upper limit of the predetermined interval for each of the set of one or more known emission energies is a percentage greater than 100% of the value on the Compton line at the first scattering angle θ₁ for the corresponding known emission energy.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein a lower limit of the predetermined interval for each of the set of one or more known emission energies is a percentage less than 100% of the value on the Compton line at the first scattering angle θ₁ for the corresponding known emission energy.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein: the method further comprises receiving data indicating a set of one or more known positions in a target volume of a subject, wherein the known positions are associated the high energy particle source, and determining whether the cone of possible locations for the source event is not with a predetermined threshold distance of a closest one of the one or more known positions; and determining the particular location for the high energy particle source further comprises determining the particular locations within the target volume without including the single source event, if the cone is not within the predetermined threshold distance of the closest one of the one or more known positions.
 10. A computer-readable medium carrying one or more sequences of instructions, wherein execution of the one or more sequences of instructions by one or more processors causes the one or more processors to perform the steps of the method of claim
 1. 11. A system comprising: a Compton camera comprising a plurality of detectors in one or more stages, each stage comprising an array of detectors for a high energy particle; at least one processor; and at least one memory including one or more sequences of instructions, the at least one memory and the one or more sequences of instructions configured to, with the at least one processor, cause the system to perform at least the steps of the method of claim
 1. 12. A method implemented on a processor comprising: receiving data indicating a set of one or more known positions in a target volume of a subject, wherein the known positions are associated a high energy particle source; collecting from each of a plurality of detectors in one or more stages of a Compton camera within a coincidence time interval, location and deposited energy from an interaction associated with a single source event from a target volume of a subject; determining for the single source event a cone of possible locations for the source event based on the locations and deposited energies collected from the plurality of detectors in one or more stages of the Compton camera; determining whether the cone of possible locations for the source event is not within a threshold distance of a closest one of the one or more known positions; determining a particular location for the high energy particle source within the target volume without including the single source event, if the cone is not within the threshold distance; and presenting, on a display device, data indicating the particular location in the target volume, wherein the threshold distance is determined by: determining a quality of a solution for positions of the high energy particle source for each of a plurality of trial distances as the threshold distance; and selecting one of the plurality of trial distances for which the determined quality is the highest.
 13. A Compton camera comprising a plurality of detectors in each of one or more stages, each stage comprising an array of detectors for a gamma ray having a photon energy in a range from about 0.1 million electron volts (MeV) to about 2 MeV, wherein at least one stage comprises a Cadnium Zinc Telluride (CZT) crystal detector array of size at least 8 centimeters (cm) by 8 cm with readout circuits capable of a count rate up to about 50,000 counts per second. 